TFNR - Cosmic objects and bodies

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In common usage in astronomy, the two terms object and body are often used interchangeably. But they can have subtle distinctions: astronomical or celestial bodies are single, compact physical entities, whereas astronomical objects are complex, more structured physical entities that can consist of multiple parts, objects, or bodies.

While cosmic structures define more complex, structured, and expansive arrangements / organizations of interrelated parts, cosmic bodies and objects represent the components that make up the cosmic structures, which in turn compose the megastructures that fill the Universe.

In any case, let's give some examples of the objects and bodies that populate the cosmos:

  • Small aggregates of dust and frozen substances
  • Small to medium-sized rocks
  • Asteroids
  • Comets with their tails
  • Moons and satellites
  • Planetoids
  • Planets
  • Stars of various types and in different phases of their evolution (various populations and evolutive paths)
  • Neutron stars: pulsars and magnetars
  • Black holes


Let's examine black holes in more detail, as they are among the strangest and most weird and complex objects listed here.

Black Holes

Black Holes (BHs) are conceived as regions of Spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light or other electromagnetic waves, can escape them. According to General Relativity (GR), a sufficiently compact mass can deform Spacetime, leading to the formation of a black hole.

The most critical factor for the formation and existence of a black hole is Mass density. When a quantity of Matter surpasses a specific Mass and density threshold, it undergoes gravitational collapse, forming a super-dense object whose gravitational attraction prevents even electromagnetic radiation from escaping. Depending on their size and the available matter in their surroundings, BHs can be voracious feeders.

I will not dwell on the standard scientific description of black holes. Information about what science has hypothesized, observed, and confirmed is widely available in countless publications and across the web.

Let's simply state that we can conceive different "types" of black holes, categorized by spatial dimensions, Mass, density, velocity, rotation, etc. These quantities are interconnected through quantitative relationships within theoretical and observational contexts—some more consolidated and widely accepted than others. One of the most commonly used units of measurement for characterizing black holes is the solar mass (SM).

A conventional classification includes:

  • Stellar-size BHs: Ranging from the minimum threshold (approximately 2.7 times the Sun's mass) to about 20-100 SM. Primary BHs—formed from the collapse of single stars (without mergers).
  • Intermediate BHs: From 20-100 SM up to 100,000 SM. Secondary BHs—resulting from mergers of stars, neutron stars, or primary BHs.
  • Supermassive BHs (SMBHs): Found at the cores of galaxies, within active galactic nuclei (AGN), quasars, or as erratic SMBHs. Size ranges from 100,000 SM to 1 billion SM. Sagittarius A**, at the heart of the Milky Way, is estimated at ~4.3 million SM.
  • Ultramassive BHs: Exceeding 1 billion SM. The most massive known BH has been reported at 66 billion SM.

We have deliberately omitted primordial BHs. In a Universe without a Big Bang, primordial BHs would represent a contradiction in terms. Black holes can only emerge from a progressive evolution—from a homogeneous and undifferentiated chaotic Field to an increasingly organized Field, forming increasingly complex and massive Structures.

Now, let's explore what unique and original insights can be offered within the context of this research project, in Evolutionary Physics.

How can we describe a black hole in terms of InfoStructures, Information, and—at the most fundamental level—Elementary Action, its Modes / Components, and dynamics?

We hypothesize that everything is composed of Elementary Events, incessant fluctuations of spatial dimensions (distances, areas, volumes) resonating around the Planck scale. We define Elementary Action as the probability distributions over time of such spatial fluctuations, and Information / Energy as the correlations between these distributions. These correlations (currently referred to as "entanglement") between distributions (Information) are organized into Structures of Information. At the most basic level, These manifest themselves as gradients, stretches and flows, twists and curls, and their Interactions, which at larger and more complex levels translate into Waves, elementary Particles, and their Interactions—including composite Particles. More or less ordered aggregates of interacting Structures generate Forms (atoms, molecules, etc.), as discussed in this chapter.

What does all this have to do with black holes?

First, black holes, like everything else in the Universe—whether Dark Matter / Dark Energy (dark turbulence, halos, bubbles, etc.), Ordinary Visible Matter (Particles), Dark and Ordinary Radiation (Waves), all forms of Energy, the entirety of Physical Reality—are composed of the same fundamental elements: Elementary Events, Action, Information / Energy, InfoStructures, and Forms. In other words, Entities (Sources: Force / Field pairs) that generate Events, Relations that organize them into Processes, which in turn evolve into new, more complex derived Entities that generate Events, and so on—an infinite formative (creative and evolutionary) explosion.

Second, Elementary Action—the most fundamental form of Existence—expresses itself through several fundamental Modes, which we refer to as the Components of Elementary Action: Perturbation, Translation, Rotation (with its two sub-modes: Chirality and Axis Orientation). As thoroughly illustrated in this paper, these Modes form the basis of the Fundamental Physical Quantities observed in Nature: Metric / Mass, Motion, Charge, and Spin. We can describe elementary Particles, such as electrons, their interactions, and their dynamics in terms of the "Dynamics of Elementary Action and its Modes / Components".

Third, even black holes can be described using the same framework of Elementary Action and its Modes (Events) and the correlations (Relations) between them (Information / Energy), which realize the observable Phenomena (Processes). Whether it is the formation of a black hole through stellar explosion or a black hole lurking in the cosmos, ready to engulf any matter drawn by its immense gravity, these processes unfold in a way that ultimately leads to the formation of colossal black holes—potentially as immense as the supermassive black holes observed at the centers of galaxies.

Now, let's formulate some hypotheses to describe a black hole in terms of the Dynamics of Elementary Action, of Information/Energy, and the InfoStructures arising from its organization.

The region of the Elementary Field, the volume of Space-time that hosts (or rather "supports") a black hole, is a domain in the Universe where correlations between the distributions of Elementary Events are at their most intense. The values of Perturbation, in particular, reach extreme levels, peaking at the BH's center of Mass. Perturbation (inhomogeneities in the distribution over time of the elementary spatial fluctuations), as discussed earlier, as a Component of Elementary Action is the root of Space-time Metric and Mass (Principle of General Equivalence).

Turbulence, Information / Energy, Entropy, Complexity

As in every other aspect of Physical Reality—every Form, object, System, and Structure of Forms—turbulence is one of the essential Phenomena required to describe and understand the origin, structure, dynamics, and evolution of Black Holes. Together with Information / Energy, Entropy, and Complexity, turbulence is everywhere—whether or not we observe it (depending on the scale of observation). Chaos and turbulence lie at the very foundation of Reality itself.

In the case of Black Holes, the turbulent nature of Reality manifests itself at an extreme level—turbulence within turbulence—permeating all scales and dimensions of this extraordinary cosmic entity.

Turbulence outside the black hole—in the surrounding environment—intensely organizes and shakes the Elementary Field in all Modes / Components of Elementary Action:

  • Turbulence in Perturbation (within the Space-time Metric, Mass density, and the gravitational phenomena they generate).
  • Turbulence in Translation (in the Motions of bodies, objects, gas, dust, Particles, and Radiation swirling around the abyss in powerful kinetic phenomena).
  • Turbulence in Rotation:Chirality (in the electric Charges of the involved Particles and the corresponding electric field, a Derived Field, associated with these intense charge interactions).
  • Turbulence in Rotation:AxisOrientation (in the Spin orientations of Particles and their associated magnetic field, a Derived Field, emerging from complex motions and Spin interactions in extreme magnetic phenomena).

Turbulence inside the black hole—woven into every component and structure—interacts with these external phenomena, further intensifying the dynamics of this peculiar region of the Elementary Field.

A black hole, despite often being modeled as a monolithic and compact entity—almost like an elementary superparticle with its own Mass, translational and rotational Motion, Charge, and Spin—is in reality an exceedingly complex object, much like how even the most elementary Particles exhibit extended and intricate internal structures (not as different parts, but as different organizations and dynamics in a spatial and temporal continuous variation—spatial extension, continuous mutation and polydynamism, the key aspects that characterize the quantum states and their evolution).

So, we can imagine a black hole as an object with a composite and partially irregular turbulente structure, consisting of a fully collapsed central core that can be represented as a sort of superparticle. Around this core, in order of "compaction" and Mass density—but also in terms of the chronological sequence of matter falling into the black hole (assuming the black hole exhibits extremely high viscosity)—concentric shells of more or less complex or elementary particles are distributed. This is not an orderly system, of course, but we should expect to find an irregular and turbulent continuous stratification of different types of Matter, at various levels of "compaction" within the superparticle—the final destination of all Matter swallowed by the black hole.

Due to the extreme slowing of Time beyond the event horizon—and even more intensely in the depths of the black hole—linked to the extreme rarefaction of Elementary Events and thus increasingly intense values of Perturbation, superdense matter exhibits an even more pronounced viscosity, and its related dynamics appear extremely stretched over Time.

Moreover, incoming turbulence, outgoing turbulence—all turbulent interactions of Matter and Radiation around the BH, particularly near the event horizon, are drawn inward due to the immense gravitational force, increasing the BH's Mass while excluding the Information / Energy, Matter, and Radiation emitted outward during accretion (radiation bursts, accelerations, relativistic jets, etc.).

Technically, nothing can escape a black hole beyond its event horizon. However, the internal turbulent structure somehow "exports" turbulent action. Most notably, the immense gravitational force of the BH—produced by the extreme concentration of Perturbation and the resulting Translation directed toward the BH's center of Mass—creates vast turbulence extending far beyond the BH itself. This effect is particularly evident in Supermassive Black Holes (SMBHs), whose Mass and dynamics influence the entire structure and behavior of their host galaxies—Dark Matter and Dark Energy halos, Ordinary (visible) Matter, and Radiation alike.

Some notes on entropy and complexity in relation to black holes. These are highly complex, cutting-edge topics that attract great interest because they lie at the intersection of relativity, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, and information theory.

Black hole thermodynamics establishes a connection between black holes and the laws of thermodynamics, particularly entropy. Many hypotheses exist regarding this connection and the thermodynamic behavior of these fascinating objects. Among them: the total area of black hole horizons cannot decrease, black holes emit blackbody radiation, losing mass and eventually evaporating, and more. The entropy of a black hole appears to be expressible in terms of its event horizon area, implying that black hole entropy is proportional to surface area rather than volume. Quantum gravity approaches have tried to explain black hole entropy microscopically by counting quantum states.

In my opinion, there is still insufficient evidence to form a definitive view on this complex subject, which touches on so many aspects of Physical Reality. On one hand, the confinement of Matter within an event horizon seems to reduce the entropy of the rest of the Universe. On the other hand, both the energy released and radiated during the formation and growth of a black hole, as well as the potential evaporation radiation, may contribute to increasing the entropy of the universe. Internal entropy is not of much concern, given that it is confined and presumably will never be observable or measurable.

The same consideration applies to the information contained within and confined by black holes, as well as to their Complexity. There seems to be no concrete evidence regarding their true inner workings. Regarding the Complexity of the Universe, one could argue that a growing black hole destroys Information, thereby reducing the complexity of the Matter it absorbs and, more broadly, the Complexity of the affected region of Space.

Structure

The internal structure of black holes is a fascinating and complex topic that challenges our understanding of physics. Science tells us that inside a black hole, the laws of classical physics break down, and extreme gravitational forces dominate.

It is hypothesized that a black hole possesses certain structural and functional characteristics. Among the most relevant, we find the Event Horizon and the Singularity.

Before attempting to summarize what the structure of a black hole might be in terms of the proposed model of the description of Physical Reality, I would like to make a consideration regarding the topic of singularity. In other parts of this work, I have introduced the slogans "No gravitational singularities: neither in the case of the Big Bang, nor in Black Holes," and "No singularities in Spacetime, no singularities in Causality."

A singularity requires infinite Mass or Energy to produce infinite density and curvature. Although such a singularity could theoretically form, it would necessitate infinite Energy concentrated at an infinitesimal point to create a singularity with infinite Mass density. It is difficult to conceive that a finite amount—no matter how immense—of Matter could produce infinite density or curvature. The value of Perturbation would need to reach infinity within a point of zero extension in the Elementary Field.

This would require the Primary Source to express an infinite quantity of Fundamental Force at that single point to produce an absolute infinite inhomogeneity within the Elementary Field. All the infinite Force generated by the Source would be concentrated in one point. No Force would remain to sustain the existence of the rest of the Field, which is infinite and spatially unbounded. Everything would cease to exist—only the singularity would remain, and that is absurd. It is evident that this does not occur, since we exist and have solid evidence that numerous black holes exist in the Universe. If even a single black hole contained a singularity, nothing else would exist in the Universe.

That said—which, for me, concludes the discussion, however superfluous—to further support my hypothesis that singularities cannot exist, I can say that the very notion that, in a universal context of an unlimited and infinite Spacetime (or at least an extremely vast one), some cause could concentrate infinite energy into a single point seems implausible. The Elementary Field—or, if we speak in "classical" terms, Spacetime itself, and even Energy in the form of Matter—exerts resistance to concentration that increases as concentration increases. Infinite force is required to concentrate infinite Energy. Two infinities—an infinity within infinity. In the infinite Universe, we do not have multiple levels of infinity at our disposal. We have only one.


Structure of Black Holes


Resuming what was mentioned above, let's attempt to list the elements of the hypothetical structure of black holes, from the innermost to the outermost regions, in terms of Perturbation / Space-time Metric and Mass, Translation / Inertial and accelerated Motion (and Gravity), Rotation:Chirality / Charge, Rotation:AxisOrientation / Spin:

  • Inner structure
    • Center of BH - At the very core of a black hole, the gravitational pull is theorized to be infinite, compressing matter into an infinitely dense point where gravity reaches extreme strength and Space-time curvature becomes immense. The true nature of the singularity remains one of the most profound mysteries in physics. Classical models predict that all matter collapses into this point, whereas quantum theories propose that the center is not a simple point, but rather a complex and dynamic quantum structure. This is a delicate and central topic that engages the entire vision of Physical Reality—spanning both the infinitely large and the infinitely small. The singularity of black holes is a concept upon which we stake our entire understanding of the Fundamental Nature of Reality and the Universe. As stated above, in this model of Reality, there is no room for singularities. They are fundamentally incompatible with the general conception of Physical Reality and the attributes of the Primary Source—both in its active manifestation, the Fundamental Force (infinite, but not concentrable into a single point of the Field to produce an infinite spacetime variation), and in its passive side, the Elementary Field (where the more intense the Space-time deformation induced by the Force, the greater the resistance of the Field to further variation). In terms of Elementary Action and its Modes/Components, we can affirm that Perturbation cannot be infinite at a single point. The limit is defined by the density of Elementary Events and their temporal distribution. It is impossible for any portion of the Elementary Field, even if infinitesimally small, to exhibit a complete absence of spatial fluctuations—even for the shortest span of Time. To completely halt the elementary spatial fluctuations, an infinite force would be needed to counter the Fundamental Force, the unstoppable expression of the Source. Should fluctuations cease, the Field itself would cease to exist. In terms of Information / Energy, Fundamental Physical Quantities, and the General Principle of Equivalence, this equates to stating that Space-time deformation—i.e., the concentration of Mass—cannot be infinite. Consequently, the temperature of the Field and the velocity of propagation of Causality / Action / Information cannot reach absolute zero.
    • Super-particle - This is the core component of the BH, containing the majority of its Mass. It can be conceptualized as a sphere (or near-spherical object), precisely centered at the black hole's center of Mass. Rotation may slightly distort its shape, or nearby gravitational interactions (e.g. tidal forces from another black hole) may introduce asymmetries and more or less accentuated deformations. We may imagine it as a (mega) elementary Particle—not composed of discrete parts, though not perfectly homogeneous.
      It is a vast InfoStructure composed of homogeneous Matter—an extraordinarily specific form, the densest Matter in the Universe. More precisely, it is "qualitatively homogeneous" Matter, but "not quantitatively". It exhibits varying levels of density of Mass, compression, etc., in a continuum ranging from lower (yet still extreme) density at its outer boundary, to peak density at its center. Other factors being equal (such as rotation), the more massive the black hole, the higher the central density of Mass achieved.
      This form of Matter does not fall into the two canonical categories: it is neither Ordinary (visible) Matter, which consists of Particles, high-density compact Vortex-type InfoStructures, nor Dark (invisible) Matter, low-density extended Vortex-type Structures. Rather, it is a distinct form of Matter, occupying a conceptual middle ground: extended but extremely dense Vortex-type InfoStructures—a super-particle in essence. A Particle with a remarkable spatial extension. For stellar black holes (with a minimum estimated mass of about 3-5 solar masses), its radius might range between 6-10 km (with a Schwarzschild radius of approximately 9-15 km). In contrast, supermassive black holes at galactic centers can span nearly a billion kilometers—comparable to the diameter of our solar system.
      Imagine an electron with a Mass ranging from five to millions of solar masses (as in the case of galactic black holes / AGN / quasars). It is a compact object of compressed, high-density Mass—no longer composed of Particles. The original Particles have merged, so to speak, losing their individual identity and Particle nature in favor of a unified, larger and denser InfoStructure. Perhaps not perfectly homogeneous. Inside it, especially in relation to its size, and therefore its Mass, different types of Matter can coexist, undergoing compression, compaction, and "fusion" into the super-compressed matter we are talking about.
      Let us revisit the image of a mega-electron. Such a structure would have the aforementioned Mass profile, with very high density at its boundary further increasing toward its center, following a specific quantitative law. Like an electron, in addition to Mass, this mega InfoStructure would possess its own condition of Motion (inertial, or accelerated under external gravitational influence), Chirality (rotation direction), and Spin (spatial orientation of its rotation axis).
      Given that it is a vortex-type InfoStructure—a super-Particle—we must consider both its extrinsic rotation (of the whole Structure) and intrinsic rotation (occurring at the event-points of the region of Elementary Field that locally instant by instant supports this Structure). The same applies to axis orientation: intrinsic (known as Spin) and extrinsic. In such mega Vortex configurations, intrinsic and extrinsic rotations may align, though this is a complex issue that requires further investigation. This scenario differs fundamentally from that of neutron stars, especially magnetars, which possess extraordinarily intense magnetic fields—not solely due to their bulk rotation, but primarily due to the near-total alignment of Spins among the neutrons composing them.
      Returning to the black hole, in summary: we hypothesize that it can be represented as a mega-Structure—a super-Particle endowed with Mass, Motion, Charge, and Spin. In terms of the Modes / Components of Elementary Action—namely, Perturbation, Translation, Rotation:Chirality, and Rotation:AxisOrientation—it is an InfoStructure characterized by:
      • spatial profile of Perturbation - Refers to the intensity of the temporal distributions of elementary spatial fluctuations in resonance around the Planck Scale. This profile exhibits a very high level at the external boundary, increasing toward an extreme peak at the center (the center of Mass).
      • level of correlation of Translation - Indicates the spatial directionality of elementary fluctuations. This becomes particularly relevant if the BH is moving through Space at high velocity, resulting in a substantial amount of Kinetic Energy. When combined with the Perturbation level, this yields an extremely large linear momentum. Additionally, an extrinsic rotation may be present—rotation of the entire object at very high angular velocity—producing a significant amount of rotational Kinetic Energy. Combined with the Perturbation level, this generates an angular momentum that can reach extraordinarily high values.
      • level of correlation of Rotation:Chirality - Refers to the spatial direction of the intrinsic rotation of elementary fluctuations—the direction of torsion, whether left-handed or right-handed. This correlates with the Electric Charge of the BH, which is presumably distributed symmetrically and centered at the center of Charge, likely coinciding with the center of Mass.
      • level of correlation of Rotation:AxisOrientation - Describes the spatial orientation of the axis of intrinsic rotation of elementary fluctuations—the direction of the torsion axis. This translates into the magnetic Spin and the magnetic field generated by the BH (its intensity and configuration). This axis presumably aligns with the axis of extrinsic rotation and passes through both the center of Mass and the center of Charge of the BH.
    • Compacting Matter shells - Surrounding the central structure of the BH—the super-Particle—there may exist various shells composed of Matter at different stages of compaction, de-individuation, compression and fusion into the super-Particle. These shells are unlikely to be sharply bounded or perfectly symmetrical structures. Rather, they may consist of regions of Matter that are not fully homogeneous and still undergoing compression, retaining partial identity.
      It is plausible that, due to the super-density—which implies high viscosity, slowed temporal flow, and limited dynamism—the stratification is influenced not only by the varying densities of materials in this region of the BH, but also by the chronological order in which Matter fell into the BH. Within these shells, from the outermost to the innermost layers, we may find:
      - Molecules, atoms, and composite Particles (nucleons, neutrons, protons, possibly mesons and other multi-quark particles)
      - Elementary Particles (quarks, electrons, neutrinos, etc.), with a prevalence of higher-generation Particles due to the extreme energies involved (e.g. top quarks, tauons)
      - Even more massive Particles—condensation/compression nuclei formed by increasingly large quantities of Elementary Particles—approaching final fusion into the super-Particle
      These shells are immersed in a region characterized by the presence of Dark Energy (positive Mass), relative to the external region of the super-Particle's Mass profile.
    • Event Horizon - It is the boundary beyond which nothing—not even light—can escape. It marks the "point of no return" and acts as the "surface" of the black hole, defining the region where escape velocity exceeds the speed of light. Everything within the event horizon is trapped—not even electromagnetic waves (multi-cycle e.m. Waves), photons (single-cycle e.m. Waves), or more broadly, InfoStructures (Vortex or Wave types) can escape.
      The conventional explanation is that the curvature of Spacetime becomes so extreme that gravity prevents any escape. This is essentially correct, but it represents a high-level interpretation—one tied to the dynamics of Information / Energy, fundamental physical quantities, and associated phenomena.
      Let us attempt to descend to the most elementary levels of Reality. Let us explore whether an explanation can be found in the Dynamics of Elementary Action and its Modes / Components, in the Action exerted by the Fundamental Force upon the Elementary Field.
      In light of what has already been discussed above—and more broadly throughout this work—it is conceivable that within the region of the Elementary Field that, from moment to moment, hosts (supports the Existence and the Essence / Form of) the portion of the black hole enclosed by the event horizon:
      • the spatial profile of Perturbation creates a kind of temporal / gravitational well, where Time (deformation of the temporal metric equivalent to the intensified attractive negative density of Mass) is drastically slowed, with a gradient culminating at the center of Mass,
      • the Field reacts to this immense inhomogeneity with a reorientation of the elementary fluctuations—both within and surrounding the black hole's super-Particle—toward the center of Mass. This reaction manifests as a very high level of correlation of Translation, which can be visualized as a gravitational well. If the correlation of Translation is extremely strong—meaning the orientation of elementary fluctuations is almost entirely directed inward—then InfoStructures (falling Ordinary Matter and Dark Matter/Energy Vortices, as well as Dark Waves - GW - and Ordinary Waves - EMW) within the event horizon cannot reorient the fluctuations of the Elementary Field to support outward Motion.
        To use a vivid analogy: if water flows rapidly downstream in a mountain river, even the strongest salmon cannot swim upstream. Their movement is further hindered by Time dilation, which weakens their Action and reduces the force they can exert. As a result, they cannot overcome the current nor redirect their motion—just as InfoStructures within the event horizon cannot escape the gravitational flow toward the center of Mass.
    • Other internal structures - In current scientific models, some black holes are theorized to contain additional internal structures. Among these:
      - Cauchy Horizon - Found in rotating or charged black holes, this is a second theoretical boundary / horizon beyond which determinism breaks down due to infinite blueshift effects. In this region, the laws of physics may no longer reliably predict future events.
      - Mass Inflation - Certain models suggest that near the Cauchy horizon, mass parameters can grow uncontrollably due to intense gravitational interactions and energy accumulation.
  • Outer structure
    • Photon Sphere - A region where light can orbit the black hole due to extreme gravitational bending. This produces the striking visual effect observed in black hole imagery—a luminous ring composed of distorted images of the accretion disk.
      What can we say about this in the context of Evolutionary Physics? We may conceptualize this region as a kind of waveguide, enabling the propagation of electromagnetic waves around the interior of the black hole. These waves travel between two distinct regions:
      - An internal region, where the levels of Perturbation (and thus the flow of Time) and the correlation of Translation (and thus the orientation of Motion toward the center of Mass due to gravity) prevent entering waves from escaping. Waves that enter this region are lost to the photon sphere and no longer contribute to its luminosity.
      - An external region, where gravity is comparatively weaker and the passage of Time is faster. The configurations of Translation and Perturbation here allow waves to escape outward into surrounding space. These escaping waves are responsible for the observable luminosity of the photon sphere.
      Waves that propagate within the shell we call the photon sphere continue to sustain its brightness until they either fall inward toward the black hole and are lost forever, or escape outward. This waveguide effect arises when the paths of the Waves follow the natural circularity—or more precisely, the sphericity—of the black hole's profile.
      The Perturbation gradient is inherently spherical, centered on the center of Mass, and the Translation orientation points inward at a certain intensity. This inward orientation causes the waves propagating around the core of the black hole to curve accordingly, maintaining their circular trajectory within the photon sphere.
    • Innermost Stable Circular Orbit (ISCO) - The ISCO is the smallest orbit in which a Particle can stably revolve around a black hole without spiraling inward. It plays a crucial role in the dynamics of black hole accretion disks, marking the inner edge where matter can orbit before inevitably falling into the event horizon.
      For a non-rotating (Schwarzschild) black hole, the ISCO lies at a fixed radial distance. However, its position varies depending on the black hole's rotation (or non-rotation) and the direction of orbital motion. If the orbiting particle moves in the same direction as the black hole's spin, the ISCO shifts closer to the event horizon; if it moves in the opposite direction, the ISCO lies farther out.
      The ISCO influences both the physics of accretion and the gravitational wave signals emitted by spiraling objects. Within the framework of this work, we can say that the ISCO is the analogue, for Vortex InfoStructures, of what the Photon Sphere is for Waves. Vortex InfoStructures possess Mass—even if minimal, as in the case of neutrinos—and inertia, and can reach velocities that approach the limit of propagation for Causality / Action / Information. This causes the ISCO to be positioned slightly farther out than the Photon Sphere.
      Here too, the level of Perturbation (rate of Time flow) and the directionality of Translation (direction and intensity of gravitational attraction) are decisive.
    • Accretion Disk (if present) - Although not part of the black hole itself, this is a surrounding disk of superheated Matter spiraling inward, emitting intense radiation before crossing the event horizon. It consists of Ordinary (visible) Matter in the form of Particles of various types—including "exotic" ones formed under extreme energetic conditions (temperature, collisions, etc.)—ionized atoms, electrons, gas, dust, and fragments of stellar objects torn apart by gravitational forces.
      Here too, the slowing of Time associated with the Perturbation gradient, and the Translation orientation toward the center of Mass of the BH (gravitational attraction), cause this Matter to spiral inward until it crosses the event horizon. Part of the Energy—kinetic, thermal, electromagnetic, nuclear—and part of the Mass of this rotating Matter escapes, emitted in the form of Dark and Ordinary Waves (Gravitational Waves and Electromagnetic Waves, respectively).
    • Relativistic Jets - These are powerful streams of ionized Matter ejected from the vicinity of black holes at speeds approaching that of light. Jets are commonly associated with active galactic nuclei (AGN), quasars, and radio galaxies, where supermassive black holes drive extreme astrophysical processes.
      Astrophysics explains that intense gravitational forces and magnetic fields heat the Matter to extreme temperatures, which accumulates in the accretion disk awaiting infall. Magnetic fields within the disk play a key role in jet formation. Twisted and tangled magnetic field lines near the black hole can channel plasma outward, emitting jets along the black hole's rotation axis.
      In rotating black holes, the relativistic frame-dragging effect further influences jet formation and acceleration, producing speeds near the speed of light. Some jets extend millions of light-years into intergalactic space, shaping their environment, influencing galaxy formation, redistributing Energy and Matter, and regulating star formation by heating interstellar gas. Jets emit radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.
      What can we add to this conventional picture? First, we can hypothesize that the magnetic fields relevant to jet formation are not only those generated within the accretion disk by rotation and ionization. Let us recall what was previously illustrated: the main body of a black hole consists of a super-Particle, endowed with Mass, extrinsic linear and angular Motion, Charge (Chirality), and Spin—defined by the orientation of the axis of intrinsic rotation (which may coincide with the axis of extrinsic rotation).
      It is precisely this Spin, which reorients the Spins of all the event-points of the Elementary Field in the internal and external regions that momentarily support the BH, that transforms the BH into an immense magnet. Due to its extremely rapid extrinsic rotation and the frame-dragging effect, the BH shapes the magnetic field lines (derived from Spin) into complex, spiral, and focused structures directed toward and out of its poles.
      These structures—partly chaotic, turbulent, and spiraling—form a natural particle accelerator, capable of projecting Matter across vast distances at extremely high speeds and energy levels. Interactions within the jets, and with the interstellar medium and galactic magnetic field lines, produce significant energetic effects, including strong emissions of Electromagnetic Waves spanning the entire spectrum.

Formation

As with many other aspects of these enigmatic objects, their formation presents profound conceptual and observational challenges. Gravitational wave astronomy is making significant contributions, but confusion still abounds.

We exclude the hypothesis of primordial black hole formation in the early Universe through density fluctuations shortly after the Big Bang. No Big Bang, no primordial black holes!

The most plausible hypothesis, especially within the framework proposed here regarding the formation of the Universe and its constituent objects and structures, is that of stellar collapse: an extreme gravitational implosion typically occurring at the end of a massive star's life cycle. When such a star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it can no longer resist gravitational forces. Its core collapses under its own weight, triggering a supernova explosion that ejects the outer layers. If the remaining core is sufficiently massive (around 2.7-3 solar masses), it continues collapsing, forming a stellar-mass black hole. But, as stated above, no singularity.

Black holes of greater mass may form through the collapse of more massive stars or via the progressive aggregation of matter by a black hole already formed through stellar collapse. Even more massive black holes likely emerge through the incorporation of stellar objects, mergers with neutron stars, or other black holes.

The general structure of a galaxy, with its dark (invisible) and ordinary (visible) components, can be configured as an immense gravitational well, attracting matter toward its center of Mass, which presumably coincides with its center / axis of rotation. As if the galactic nucleus were the hub of a colossal wheel—a gigantic Vortex whose shape, Mass profile, and specific dynamics draw Matter inward, facilitating successive fusions of massive objects into increasingly larger black holes. These very massive objects, barring interactions that eject them, will tend to fall toward the galactic interior, where a central black hole resides and continues to grow through the collapse of gas, dust, stars, and—of course—other black holes, even very massive ones.

Significant contributions to the formation of supermassive black holes, such as those found at galactic centers, in active galactic nuclei, quasars, etc., undoubtedly arise from galactic interactions and mergers, especially involving dwarf galaxies. It is reasonable to assume that the probability of central black hole fusion during a galactic merger is higher when the merger involves a satellite dwarf galaxy. The trajectory of such a satellite is more likely directed toward the host galaxy's center, and the disparity in size and mass increases the likelihood that the satellite's entire stellar population remains within the host. Simultaneously, the satellite's central black hole is very likely to approach and merge with the host's central black hole, which—due to its immense mass—exerts a formidable gravitational pull.

I do not believe that the formation of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) occurs via direct collapse of massive gas clouds. An intermediate stellar phase is, in my view, the norm. A galactic cloud collapses into a star, which exhausts its fuel and collapses into a black hole, initiating a growth trajectory as hypothesized above. In my opinion, gas and dust can feed black holes, but not cause them to form from scratch.

Interactions

How do black holes interact? What do they interact with? Through which phenomena and mechanisms? Let's try to take a look at this aspect of the life of BHs from the perspective of Evolutionary Physics.

Black holes interact with their surroundings and with other objects in various ways, shaping the dynamics of the Universe.

Due to their Mass—and especially their Density—BHs interact primarily at the gravitational level, influencing nearby stars, gas clouds, and even other black holes. The great inhomogeneity of the Perturbation Component, concentrated in a small volume—an inhomogeneity that reflects their immense Mass—triggers a strong reaction from the Elementary Field aimed at restoring homogeneity. This reaction is represented as a high level of correlation of Translation inside and outside the BH.

The orientation of elementary spatial fluctuations (Elementary Events) tends to align along the straight line connecting the center of Mass of the attracted body with the center of Mass of the black hole. The greater the Mass of the black hole, the stronger the attraction, and the higher the correlation of Translation in the region of the Field separating the two Masses. This results in a greater temporal distribution of spatial fluctuations in the aforementioned direction—conveying the gravitational attraction. That is, the greater is the amount of Time during which the spatial fluctuations of the involved event points in the Field are oriented from the attracted Mass toward the center of the black hole.

This privileged orientation of Translation represents the gravitational acceleration that a test body would experience if placed in that region of Space. Let us remember: acceleration—even that produced by a Mass through gravitational attraction—is potential kinetic Energy (capable of inducing motion in a Mass), not to be confused with the inertial Motion of a body, which represents its effective Energy in the kinetic form, or kinetic Energy properly speaking.

This orientation of Translation, which can be incredibly coherent over immense distances and follows a quadratic law—the well-known inverse square law—combined with the dynamics of the Motion of the black hole and especially of the objects entering its sphere of attraction, produces all the gravitational phenomena and dynamics: spiral orbits, accretion disks, binary systems, ejections of stars from systems / galaxies, peculiar dynamics of globular clusters, mergers, etc.

Even though gravitational interaction—due to the immense Masses and densities involved (concentration and compactness)—is certainly prevalent, black holes also appear to interact through other phenomena and dynamics.

We have interactions with effects on the Metric, and therefore on the flow of Time and on the limit of the speed of propagation of Causality / Action / Information in the Field (speed of light): in the super-intense gravitational field produced by (or associated with) a black hole, Time flows slower—sometimes much slower—and the limit of the speed of propagation is lower than that of the "unstructured Field" (absolute vacuum, a condition of emptiness—attention—not of nothingness). It is the curvature of time that plays a crucial role in the dynamics of interactions in regions gravitationally dominated by celestial bodies, particularly supermassive ones (gravitational lensing, frame-dragging, etc.). As has been repeatedly stated, space is not curved at scales far from the Planck scale. And it is the "propagation speed" that is influenced, as a function of the rate of flow of time.

Then, we have the interactions determined by Chirality, which we could call Charge interactions. These are exerted differently on the objects in gravitational relation, depending on whether the directions of intrinsic / extrinsic rotation are concordant or discordant.

Finally, we have the interactions produced by magnetic fields. Among the most striking phenomena, these create relativistic jets—high-speed streams of particles ejected from the poles of BHs.

Global effects on the galactic environment—on its formation and evolution—are determined not only by the jets but also by the powerful attraction, especially from central SMBHs.

But we have not yet talked about the interaction of BHs with Dark Matter and Dark Energy. All the Ordinary (visible) Matter of a galaxy is immersed in the turbulent Vortex of Dark (invisible) Matter, which represents the halo that completely envelops it—a sort of dynamic shell. The interaction between BHs and Dark Halo is obviously mainly of a gravitational type. Even though the low density of Dark Matter (remember—not constituted by Particles, but by a turbulent continuum of alteration of the Space-time Metric, of Time metric to be precise) limits the intensity of such interaction. The Dark Halo, possessing a Charge and a Spin, also produces interactions at the level of Chirality of its extrinsic rotation and at the level of orientation of the axis of intrinsic rotation / Spin / magnetic fields.

The regions characterized by Dark Energy are located in the external part of the galactic bubbles. So it is unlikely that there are significant interactions between black holes—whether stellar, intermediate, or central—and the Dark Energy shell of the dark bubble of the hosting galaxy. This is a kind of interaction that could only occur in the case of erratic BHs, exiting the galactic disk due to peculiar gravitational interactions, galactic mergers, etc. The visible part of galaxies is located in the central regions of the Dark Halo, far from the regions dominated by Dark Energy. In reality, every Particle, every object, every Vortex-type InfoStructure, or every Form composed of Vortices, of Particles, sees in its surroundings a Perturbation configuration higher than the average of the "zero point," so to speak. This corresponds to what we call Dark Energy—positive Mass, repulsive, symmetrical to what we normally call Mass, the negative Mass that constitutes the body, the core of the Vortex (Dark Matter). As seen in the previous chapter, due to the greater extension of the volume in which it can distribute itself, Dark Energy is much less dense than Ordinary Mass that is concentrated in the inner region, the core of the Dark Halo. Therefore, its repulsive effects are infinitely smaller under normal conditions. In compression conditions, however—when the Vortices are forced to approach at very short distances and, in the contact zone, Dark Energy cannot redistribute itself—its repulsive action is expressed more and more intensely as the compression increases.

The immense and changing magnetic fields of BHs—especially the central supermassive ones—interact with the intragalactic magnetic fields produced by the turbulent dynamics inside the Dark Halo. These interactions produce even intense phenomena and influence their dynamics (e.g. influencing the direction and shape of the polar jets and their emissions).

In reality, every Particle, every object, every Vortex-type InfoStructure, or every Form composed of Vortices, of Particles, in its surroundings sees a Perturbation configuration higher than the average of "zero point" so to speak. Which corresponds to what we call Dark Energy, positive Mass, repulsive, symmetrical to the Mass, the negative Mass that constitutes the body of the Vortex. As seen in the previous chapter, due to the greater extension of the volume in which it can distribute itself, the Dark Energy is much less dense than the Ordinary Mass. Therefore its repulsive effects are infinitely smaller, in normal conditions. In compression conditions, however, when the Vortices are forced to approach at very short distances, and the Dark Energy cannot redistribute itself, its repulsive action is expressed more and more intensely as the compression increases.

In reality, every Particle, every object, every Vortex-type InfoStructure, or every Form composed of Vortices, of Particles, sees in its surroundings an intensity of Perturbation higher than the average value of the "unstructured" Field (absolute vacuum, no Dark Matter / Dark Energy, no Ordinary Matter, no Radiation), so to speak. This high level of Perturbation corresponds precisely to what we call Dark Energy, repulsive, positive Mass, symmetrical to the Mass, the negative Mass that constitutes the core of the Vortex Structure. As seen in the previous chapter, due to the greater extension of the volume in which it can distribute itself, Dark Energy is much less concentrated and dense than Ordinary Mass. Therefore, its repulsive effects are infinitely smaller under normal conditions. In compression conditions, however—when the Vortices, both Dark Halos and Ordinary Matter Particles are forced to approach at very short distances and Dark Energy cannot redistribute itself—its repulsive action is expressed more and more intensely as the approaching and the compression increase.

A few more notes, regarding the main modes of interaction between black holes and between black holes and stellar objects / other materials, which we have already mentioned above, speaking of the formation of BHs. I am obviously referring to the phenomena of accretion and fusion.

Regarding accretion, we can affirm that the Mass of BHs can only increase. All hypotheses concerning the evaporation of black holes seem to me somewhat forced and fanciful (or at least rather irrelevant in the context of the dynamics of the Universe)—perhaps driven by the tension to integrate quantum and relativistic physics. Everything that has crossed the event horizon—particles, radiation, dust, planets, stars, any Structure of Information representing Ordinary (visible) Matter and Energy—cannot return. Perhaps only during extreme events, such as the merger of BHs, is it possible that in the phases of approach, collision, and fusion, parts of the Matter of the BH may escape its deadly grip.

Mergers are catastrophic phenomena in which two BHs, or a BH and a neutron star (or other compact and super-dense object), spiral closer in a dance that rapidly leads to collision and fusion, followed by phases of oscillation and settling. This is what was revealed in the famous observations through the detection of gravitational waves by the international network of interferometers. For details in terms of conventional physics, refer to the vast scientific literature on the subject.

In the terms of Evolutionary Physics—simplifying greatly and neglecting phenomena involving:

  • Chirality (concordance or discordance of rotation direction, electric fields, etc.)
  • Spin (extremely intense magnetic fields of varied shapes, intertwining and enveloping with effects that can partly modify trajectories defined by gravitational and kinetic phenomena)
  • Dark Energy shells of the two objects, which as distance shortens may produce friction and intense repulsive forces—

we can say that the two Modes / Components of the Elementary Action most affecting the phenomenon of fusion are:

  • Perturbation (root of the Spacetime Metric and of the Mass of the colliding objects)
  • Translation (root of Motion, both linear and extrinsic rotational)

The Perturbation profiles of the two objects, especially of the cores of the BHs involved, of the super-particles, as we have called and described them, are destined to come into contact with a spiraling approach motion that brings the two objects to a powerful friction capable of overcoming the repulsion of the external shell characterized by positive Mass (Dark Energy), and probably to partially unhinge the shells of material in the compacting phase beyond the event horizons, partly pushing them to the final collapse in the super-particle, and partly feeding a shell/cloud common to the two objects, in dynamic evolution.

The Perturbation profiles of the two objects—especially the cores of the BHs involved, the super-particles, as we have called and described them—are destined to come into contact through a spiraling approach motion. This motion brings the two objects into powerful friction, capable of overcoming the repulsion of the external shell characterized by positive Mass (Dark Energy), and likely to partially unhinge the shells of material in the compacting phase beyond the event horizons. Part of this material may collapse into the super-particle, while another part may feed a shell/cloud common to the two objects, in dynamic evolution, until complete fusion.

I believe that the dynamics of these mergers is strongly influenced by the Mass ratios and therefore by the spatial extension, as well as by the motion in space, and by the rotary motion (concordant / discordant directions, absolute and relative velocities, eccentricities also triggered by the tidal effect in the fusion phase, etc.). Therefore I do not believe that one merger can be observed equal to another even with the same dimensions of the BHs involved.

I believe that the dynamics of these mergers are strongly influenced by:

  • Mass ratios and therefore spatial extension
  • Motion in Space
  • rotational motion (concordant / discordant directions, absolute and relative velocities, eccentricities triggered by tidal effects during the fusion phase, etc.)

Therefore, I do not believe that one merger can be observed as identical to another—even with the same dimensions of the BHs involved.

In addition to the intricate dynamics of the encounter / clash of the Perturbation profiles (of the positive and negative Masses), the fundamental part of the fusion is played precisely by the complex and extensive interaction of the Translation correlation patterns that represent the root of the complex Motions followed by the various parts and portions of the BHs in their proper and relative movements.

These are very complex issues—difficult to interpret and model. But they are extremely important for testing the Dynamics of Elementary Action in extreme conditions.

Evolution

Let's review some of the concepts expressed in this section to complete the overview of the formation and evolution of black holes.

We have seen how these enigmatic objects form—typically by the collapse of massive stars—and how they structure themselves, with all the different parts that make up their internal and external parts. We've explored how they grow—through the incorporation of Matter: gas, dust, stars, or even other black holes through mergers—and how they interact with the galaxy that hosts them, with intragalactic materials and objects, with compact bodies such as neutron stars, and with other BHs through (gravitational attraction, accretion, mergers, jets and radiation).

The evolution of black holes is a dynamic process that unfolds over cosmic time scales, shaping galaxies and influencing the structure of the Universe. Let's now examine some aspects of their possible evolutionary paths.

We cannot exclude the possibility that a stellar black hole—especially one with a relatively low Mass, that has not undergone significant accretion or fusion events—might wander undisturbed for eternity within its host galaxy, or even in extragalactic space (ejected due to dynamic gravitational interactions with very massive objects), without participating in the growth dynamics through fusion with other BHs.

However, it is more reasonable to assume that the strong gravitational attraction of these objects—growing stronger as their Mass increases—draws them toward increasingly crowded galactic regions, multiplying the probability of encountering mergers with other BHs. In general, the more massive the object, the greater its tendency to escape local dynamics and follow a long-term trajectory that leads it ever closer to the galactic center, where a supermassive black hole (SMBH) awaits to absorb it—after a gravitational dance that may be prolonged but ultimately inexorable (except in rare cases of gravitational kick, which may hurl the approaching BH into deep space).

As for SMBHs, in their evolution we certainly find the formation of accretion disks, which generate intense radiation and sometimes produce quasars, among the brightest objects in the universe. And again, the active participation in the interaction dynamics in the merger between galaxies, perhaps without then encountering a merger with the SMBH of the other galaxy, but still greatly influencing the outcome of the galactic merger. Let us also remember phenomena such as the emission of powerful gravitational waves and the evolution of spin (due to accretion and mergers), which can influence their ability to generate relativistic jets, high-speed particle flows and electromagnetic radiation.

As for SMBHs, their evolution certainly includes the formation of accretion disks, which generate intense radiation and sometimes produce quasars—among the brightest objects in the Universe. They also play an active role in the interaction dynamics during galactic mergers, even if they do not always merge with the SMBH of the other interacting galaxy. Nevertheless, they significantly influence the outcome of the galactic merger. Let us also recall phenomena such as:

  • emission of powerful gravitational waves
  • evolution of Spin and the orientation of its axis (due to accretion and mergers)
  • generation of relativistic jets—high-speed particle flows and electromagnetic radiation

These processes are not only central to the life cycle of black holes but also to the broader architecture and evolution of the cosmos.

Regarding the final fate of a black hole, there is much discussion about evaporation, Hawking Radiation, and related phenomena. After having rejected the possibility that some black holes could originate from primordial black holes—an impossible hypothesis in a Universe without a Big Bang—I would also reject the hypothesis of their disappearance through evaporation, even if occurring over an almost infinite time scale. This supposed phenomenon does not seem plausible to me. And even if it were possible, I believe its effect would be so modest and diluted over such immense time spans that, in my opinion, it would not significantly influence the dynamics and fates of black holes—or, more generally, of the Universe. Yes, I see: it is a central aspect in the attempt to understand the relationships between Relativity and the quantum world. But I believe that, for this purpose, it will be necessary to identify other, more concrete and observable phenomena.

In conclusion

This is a very broad topic. Here, we have only scratched the surface. Much deeper investigation would be necessary to fully grasp the complexity and richness of the subject. But I hope the essence of what I've expressed regarding some aspects of these enigmatic and frightening objects is clear.

In extreme summary, for me:

  • black holes are not just gravitational traps—they are dynamic, evolving structures that shape the architecture of the Universe
  • their interactions—through accretion, mergers, jets, and field dynamics—are central to the cosmic narrative
  • they have a structure, including an internal one, within Ordinary Matter, even if it is very strange and exotic, which makes them up
  • their core can be represented as a super-particle
  • no singularity (which, in this model, as stated, cannot exist)
  • no primordial black holes exist (there was no Big Bang, and the only way black holes can form and evolve is through collapse and accretion


Links to the tables of contents of TFNR Paper


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