TFNR - Cosmic objects and bodies

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In common usage in astronomy, the two terms object and body are often used interchangeably. But they can have subtle distinctions: astronomical or celestial bodies are single, compact physical entities, whereas astronomical objects are complex, more structured physical entities that can consist of multiple parts, objects, or bodies.

While cosmic structures define more complex, structured, and expansive arrangements / organizations of interrelated parts, cosmic bodies and objects represent the components that make up the cosmic structures, which in turn compose the megastructures that fill the Universe.

In any case, let's give some examples of the objects and bodies that populate the cosmos:

  • Small aggregates of dust and frozen substances
  • Small to medium-sized rocks
  • Asteroids
  • Comets with their tails
  • Moons and satellites
  • Planetoids
  • Planets
  • Stars of various types and in different phases of their evolution (various populations and evolutive paths)
  • Neutron stars: pulsars and magnetars
  • Black holes


Let's examine black holes in more detail, as they are among the strangest and most weird and complex objects listed here.

Black Holes

Black Holes (BHs) are conceived as regions of Spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing, including light or other electromagnetic waves, can escape them. According to General Relativity (GR), a sufficiently compact mass can deform Spacetime, leading to the formation of a black hole.

The most critical factor for the formation and existence of a black hole is Mass density. When a quantity of Matter surpasses a specific Mass and density threshold, it undergoes gravitational collapse, forming a super-dense object whose gravitational attraction prevents even electromagnetic radiation from escaping. Depending on their size and the available matter in their surroundings, BHs can be voracious feeders.

I will not dwell on the standard scientific description of black holes. Information about what science has hypothesized, observed, and confirmed is widely available in countless publications and across the web.

Let's simply state that we can conceive different "types" of black holes, categorized by spatial dimensions, Mass, density, velocity, rotation, etc. These quantities are interconnected through quantitative relationships within theoretical and observational contexts—some more consolidated and widely accepted than others. One of the most commonly used units of measurement for characterizing black holes is the solar mass (SM).

A conventional classification includes:

  • Stellar-size BHs: Ranging from the minimum threshold (approximately 2.7 times the Sun’s mass) to about 20–100 SM. Primary BHs—formed from the collapse of single stars (without mergers).
  • Intermediate BHs: From 20–100 SM up to 100,000 SM. Secondary BHs—resulting from mergers of stars, neutron stars, or primary BHs.
  • Supermassive BHs (SMBHs): Found at the cores of galaxies, within active galactic nuclei (AGN), quasars, or as erratic SMBHs. Size ranges from 100,000 SM to 1 billion SM. Sagittarius A**, at the heart of the Milky Way, is estimated at ~4.3 million SM.
  • Ultramassive BHs: Exceeding 1 billion SM. The most massive known BH has been reported at 66 billion SM.

We have deliberately omitted primordial BHs. In a Universe without a Big Bang, primordial BHs would represent a contradiction in terms. Black holes can only emerge from a progressive evolution—from a homogeneous and undifferentiated chaotic Field to an increasingly organized Field, forming increasingly complex and massive Structures.

Now, let’s explore what unique and original insights can be offered within the context of this research project, in Evolutionary Physics.

How can we describe a black hole in terms of InfoStructures, Information, and—at the most fundamental level—Elementary Action, its Modes / Components, and dynamics?

We hypothesize that everything is composed of Elementary Events, incessant fluctuations of spatial dimensions (distances, areas, volumes) resonating around the Planck scale. We define Elementary Action as the probability distributions over time of such spatial fluctuations, and Information / Energy as the correlations between these distributions. These correlations (currently referred to as "entanglement") between distributions (Information) are organized into Structures of Information. At the most basic level, These manifest themselves as gradients, stretches and flows, twists and curls, and their Interactions, which at larger and more complex levels translate into Waves, elementary Particles, and their Interactions—including composite Particles. More or less ordered aggregates of interacting Structures generate Forms (atoms, molecules, etc.), as discussed in this chapter.

What does all this have to do with black holes?

First, black holes, like everything else in the Universe—whether Dark Matter / Dark Energy (dark turbulence, halos, bubbles, etc.), Ordinary Visible Matter (Particles), Dark and Ordinary Radiation (Waves), all forms of Energy, the entirety of Physical Reality—are composed of the same fundamental elements: Elementary Events, Action, Information / Energy, InfoStructures, and Forms. In other words, Entities (Sources: Force / Field pairs) that generate Events, Relations that organize them into Processes, which in turn evolve into new, more complex derived Entities that generate Events, and so on—an infinite formative (creative and evolutionary) explosion.

Second, Elementary Action—the most fundamental form of Existence—expresses itself through several fundamental Modes, which we refer to as the Components of Elementary Action: Perturbation, Translation, Rotation (with its two sub-modes: Chirality and Axis Orientation). As thoroughly illustrated in this paper, these Modes form the basis of the Fundamental Physical Quantities observed in Nature: Metric / Mass, Motion, Charge, and Spin. We can describe elementary Particles, such as electrons, their interactions, and their dynamics in terms of the "Dynamics of Elementary Action and its Modes / Components".

Third, even black holes can be described using the same framework of Elementary Action and its Modes (Events) and the correlations (Relations) between them (Information / Energy), which realize the observable Phenomena (Processes). Whether it is the formation of a black hole through stellar explosion or a black hole lurking in the cosmos, ready to engulf any matter drawn by its immense gravity, these processes unfold in a way that ultimately leads to the formation of colossal black holes—potentially as immense as the supermassive black holes observed at the centers of galaxies.

Now, let's formulate some hypotheses to describe a black hole in terms of the Dynamics of Elementary Action, of Information/Energy, and the InfoStructures arising from its organization.

The region of the Elementary Field, the volume of Space-time that hosts (or rather "supports") a black hole, is a domain in the Universe where correlations between the distributions of Elementary Events are at their most intense. The values of Perturbation, in particular, reach extreme levels, peaking at the BH's center of Mass. Perturbation (inhomogeneities in the distribution over time of the elementary spatial fluctuations), as discussed earlier, as a Component of Elementary Action is the root of Space-time Metric and Mass (Principle of General Equivalence).

Turbulence, Information / Energy, Entropy, Complexity

As in every other aspect of Physical Reality—every Form, object, System, and Structure of Forms—turbulence is one of the essential Phenomena required to describe and understand the origin, structure, dynamics, and evolution of Black Holes. Together with Information / Energy, Entropy, and Complexity, turbulence is everywhere—whether or not we observe it (depending on the scale of observation). Chaos and turbulence lie at the very foundation of Reality itself.

In the case of Black Holes, the turbulent nature of Reality manifests itself at an extreme level—turbulence within turbulence—permeating all scales and dimensions of this extraordinary cosmic entity.

Turbulence outside the black hole—in the surrounding environment—intensely organizes and shakes the Elementary Field in all Modes / Components of Elementary Action:

  • Turbulence in Perturbation (within the Space-time Metric, Mass density, and the gravitational phenomena they generate).
  • Turbulence in Translation (in the Motions of bodies, objects, gas, dust, Particles, and Radiation swirling around the abyss in powerful kinetic phenomena).
  • Turbulence in Rotation:Chirality (in the electric Charges of the involved Particles and the corresponding electric field, a Derived Field, associated with these intense charge interactions).
  • Turbulence in Rotation:AxisOrientation (in the Spin orientations of Particles and their associated magnetic field, a Derived Field, emerging from complex motions and Spin interactions in extreme magnetic phenomena).

Turbulence inside the black hole—woven into every component and structure—interacts with these external phenomena, further intensifying the dynamics of this peculiar region of the Elementary Field.

A black hole, despite often being modeled as a monolithic and compact entity—almost like an elementary superparticle with its own Mass, translational and rotational Motion, Charge, and Spin—is in reality an exceedingly complex object, much like how even the most elementary Particles exhibit extended and intricate internal structures (not as different parts, but as different organizations and dynamics in a spatial and temporal continuous variation—spatial extension, continuous mutation and polydynamism, the key aspects that characterize the quantum states and their evolution).

So, we can imagine a black hole as an object with a composite and partially irregular turbulente structure, consisting of a fully collapsed central core that can be represented as a sort of superparticle. Around this core, in order of "compaction" and Mass density—but also in terms of the chronological sequence of matter falling into the black hole (assuming the black hole exhibits extremely high viscosity)—concentric shells of more or less complex or elementary particles are distributed. This is not an orderly system, of course, but we should expect to find an irregular and turbulent continuous stratification of different types of Matter, at various levels of "compaction" within the superparticle—the final destination of all Matter swallowed by the black hole.

Due to the extreme slowing of Time beyond the event horizon—and even more intensely in the depths of the black hole—linked to the extreme rarefaction of Elementary Events and thus increasingly intense values of Perturbation, superdense matter exhibits an even more pronounced viscosity, and its related dynamics appear extremely stretched over Time.

Moreover, incoming turbulence, outgoing turbulence—all turbulent interactions of Matter and Radiation around the BH, particularly near the event horizon, are drawn inward due to the immense gravitational force, increasing the BH's Mass while excluding the Information / Energy, Matter, and Radiation emitted outward during accretion (radiation bursts, accelerations, relativistic jets, etc.).

Technically, nothing can escape a black hole beyond its event horizon. However, the internal turbulent structure somehow "exports" turbulent action. Most notably, the immense gravitational force of the BH—produced by the extreme concentration of Perturbation and the resulting Translation directed toward the BH's center of Mass—creates vast turbulence extending far beyond the BH itself. This effect is particularly evident in Supermassive Black Holes (SMBHs), whose Mass and dynamics influence the entire structure and behavior of their host galaxies—Dark Matter and Dark Energy halos, Ordinary (visible) Matter, and Radiation alike.

Some notes on entropy and complexity in relation to black holes. These are highly complex, cutting-edge topics that attract great interest because they lie at the intersection of relativity, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, and information theory.

Black hole thermodynamics establishes a connection between black holes and the laws of thermodynamics, particularly entropy. Many hypotheses exist regarding this connection and the thermodynamic behavior of these fascinating objects. Among them: the total area of black hole horizons cannot decrease, black holes emit blackbody radiation, losing mass and eventually evaporating, and more. The entropy of a black hole appears to be expressible in terms of its event horizon area, implying that black hole entropy is proportional to surface area rather than volume. Quantum gravity approaches have tried to explain black hole entropy microscopically by counting quantum states.

In my opinion, there is still insufficient evidence to form a definitive view on this complex subject, which touches on so many aspects of Physical Reality. On one hand, the confinement of Matter within an event horizon seems to reduce the entropy of the rest of the Universe. On the other hand, both the energy released and radiated during the formation and growth of a black hole, as well as the potential evaporation radiation, may contribute to increasing the entropy of the universe. Internal entropy is not of much concern, given that it is confined and presumably will never be observable or measurable.

The same consideration applies to the information contained within and confined by black holes, as well as to their Complexity. There seems to be no concrete evidence regarding their true inner workings. Regarding the Complexity of the Universe, one could argue that a growing black hole destroys Information, thereby reducing the complexity of the Matter it absorbs and, more broadly, the Complexity of the affected region of Space.

Structure

The internal structure of black holes is a fascinating and complex topic that challenges our understanding of physics. Science tells us that inside a black hole, the laws of classical physics break down, and extreme gravitational forces dominate.

It is hypothesized that a black hole has certain structural and functional characteristics. Among the most relevant, we find the Event Horizon and the Singularity.

Before attempting to summarize what the structure of a black hole might be in terms of the proposed model of the description of Physical Reality, I would like to make a consideration regarding the topic of singularity. In other parts of this work, I have introduced the slogans "No gravitational singularities: neither in the case of the Big Bang, nor in Black Holes," and "No singularities in Spacetime, no singularities in Causality."

A singularity requires infinite Mass or Energy to produce infinite density and curvature. Although such a singularity could theoretically form, it would necessitate infinite Energy concentrated at an infinitesimal point to create a singularity with infinite density. It is difficult to think that a finite amount, even if huge, of Matter could produce an infinite density / curvature. The value of Perturbation should reach an infinite value in a zero extension point of the Elementary Field.

This would require the Primary Source to express an infinite quantity of Fundamental Force at that single point to produce such an absolute infinite inhomogeneity within the Elementary Field. All the infinite Force generated by the Source would be concentrated in just one point. No Force would remain to sustain the existence of the rest of the Field, which is infinite and spatially unlimited. Everything would cease to exist—only the singularity would remain, and that is absurd". It is evident that this does not happen, since we exist and have solid evidence that numerous black holes exist in the universe. If even a single black hole contained a singularity, nothing else would exist in the Universe.

That said, which for me concludes the discussion—however superfluous—to further support my hypothesis that singularities cannot exist, I can say that the very idea that, in a universal context of an unlimited and infinite Spacetime (or at least an extremely vast one), some cause could concentrate infinite Energy into a single point seems implausible. The Elementary Field—or, if we think in "classical" terms, Spacetime itself, and even Energy in the form of Matter—exerts resistance to concentration that increases as concentration increases. Infinite Force is required to concentrate infinite Energy. Two infinities—an infinity within infinity. In the infinite Universe, we do not have multiple levels of infinity at our disposal. We have only one level.

Resuming what was mentioned above, let's attempt to list the elements of the hypothetical structure of black holes, from the innermost to the outermost regions, in terms of Perturbation / Space and Time Metric and Mass, Translation / Inertial and accelerated Motion (and Gravity), Rotation:Chirality / Charge, Rotation:AxisOrientation / Spin:

  • Inner structure
    • Center of BH – At the very core of a black hole, the gravitational pull is theorized to be infinite, compressing matter into an infinitely dense point where gravity becomes infinitely strong and space-time curvature becomes extreme. The true nature of the singularity remains one of the biggest mysteries in physics. Classical physics predicts that all matter collapses into this point. Quantum theories suggest that the center is not a simple point but rather a complex quantum structure. This is a delicate and central topic that involves the entire vision of Physical Reality, both of the infinitely large and the infinitely small. The singularity of black holes is a concept on which we stake our entire understanding of the Fundamental Nature of Reality and the Universe. As said above, in this model of description of Reality there are no rooms for singularities. They are incompatible with the general vision of Physical Reality, with the properties of the Primary Source, both in its active expression, the Fundamental Force (infinite, but not concentrable in a single point of the Field to produce an infinite Space-time variation), and in its passive side, the Elementary Field (the more intense the Space-time deformation produced by the Force, the more intense the resistance of the Field to further variation). In the terms of Elementary Action and its Modes/ Components, we can say that Perturbation cannot be infinite in one single point. The limit is represented by the amount of Elementary Events and their temporal distribution. It's impossibile that a portion of the Elementary Field, even if infinitesimal, shows no spatial fluctuations for even a very short amount of Time. To completely stop fluctuations an infinite Force is needed, because the Field exerts an infinite resistance. If the fluctuations should stop, the Field will cease to exist. In terms of Information / Energy, of the Fundamental Physical Quantities and the General Principle of Equivalence, that is equivalent to say that the deformation of the Metric or, in other words, the concentration of Mass cannot be infinite (and consequently, the temperature of the Field and the velocity of propagation of Causality, Action and Information cannot be zero).
    • Super-particle – This is the main part of the BH, which includes most of its Mass. We can imagine it as a sphere, centered precisely in the center of Mass of the black hole. A quasi-sphere (the rotation can slightly alter its shape, or the attraction of another black hole nearby, due to the tidal effect) that we can imagine as a (mega) elementary Particle (therefore not composed of parts, even if it is not a completely homogeneous sphere).
      A large InfoStructure made up of homogeneous Matter, of an absolutely particular form of Matter, the densest Matter present in the Universe. Or rather, made up of "qualitatively homogeneous" Matter, but "not quantitatively", therefore with different levels of density, compression, etc., in a continuum that goes from the outer boundary with the lowest density (these are always extreme density levels), to the center of the black hole where the density of Mass reaches a peak. Other factors being equal (e.g. rotation), the more massive the black hole, the higher the level of density reached in its center of Mass.
      This is a form of Matter that does not fall into the two categories we have described. Neither Ordinary (visible) Matter, as it is not composed of Particles, compact high-density Vortex-type Infostructures, nor Dark (invisible) Matter, extended low-density Vortex-type Infostructures. It is a particular form of Matter, which we could define as a middle ground between the two aforementioned categories: extended but high-density Vortex-type Infostructures. A super-particle, in fact. A particle that has an extension, a radius that we imagine for a stellar black hole (minimum estimated mass of about 3-5 solar masses) could be around 6-10 km (with a Schwarzschild radius of about 9-15 km). And can reach about a billion kilometers (as much as our entire solar system) as the upper limit of supermassive black holes that lie at the center of galaxies.
      Let's imagine an electron with a Mass of five, ten, up to millions of times the Mass of the Sun (as in the case of galactic black holes / AGN / quasars). It is a compact object, composed of compressed Mass, at high density, not formed by Particles. The Particles that gave rise to its formation have been compressed, so to speak, to the point of merging into one another, losing their individuality, their Particle nature in favor of a larger and denser InfoStructure.
      Let's return to the image of a mega-electron. It will have a Mass profile as mentioned above, with an immense density at the external boundary, which increases to peak levels at its center, according to a precise quantitative law. Like an electron, in addition to the Mass, this mega InfoStructure will have a condition of Motion (inertial, and accelerated if it is subject to the attraction of other Matter), its own chirality (direction of rotation), and a spatial orientation of the axis of rotation. Since we are dealing with a super-Particle, a vortex-type InfoStructure, we can / must talk about an extrinsic rotation (the rotation of the Structure as a whole) and an intrinsic rotation (rotation in the event points of the Elementary Field that from time to time support this Structure). The same thing goes for the orientation of the axis of rotation, intrinsic (which we call Spin) and extrinsic. It is likely that for such a type of mega Vortex Structure, for this super-Particle, the intrinsic and extrinsic rotation coincide, but the issue is complex and certainly requires further investigation. The issue is certainly different from that of a neutron star, in particular a magnetar, which, as the name suggests, has an extremely intense magnetic field, not due (or not only due) to its rotation on itself as a compact object, but above all due to the almost absolute alignment of the Spins of all the neutrons that make up the magnetar.
      Returning to the black hole, in summary, we hypothesize that it can be represented as a mega Structure, a super-Particle endowed with Mass, Motion, Charge and Spin. In terms of the Modes / Components of Elementary Action, respectively Perturbation, Translation, Rotation:Chirality and Rotation:AxisOrientation, an InfoStructure with:
      • spatial profile of Perturbation (intensity of the temporal distributions of the elementary spatial fluctuations in resonance around the Planck Scale) with a very high level at the external boundary, which increases to an extreme peak at the center (the center of Mass),
      • level of correlation of Translation (spatial direction of the elementary fluctuations) which can be relevant if the BH is moving in Space at high speed (a large amount of Kinetic Energy, which combined with the Perturbation level gives us an extremely large linear momentum), to which is added or can be added an extrinsic rotation, of the object in its entirety, at very high angular velocity (a large amount of Kinetic Energy associated with the rotation, which combined with the Perturbation level gives us an angular momentum that can reach incredibly large levels),
      • level of correlation of Rotation:Chirality (spatial direction of the intrinsic rotation of the elementary fluctuations, direction of torsion, left-handed or right-handed) which translates into the Electric Charge of the BH, with spatial distribution presumably symmetric, centered in the center of Charge that most likely can coincide with the center of Mass,
      • level of correlation of Rotation:AxisOrientation (direction of the spatial orientation of the axis of intrinsic rotation of elementary fluctuations, direction of the spatial orientation of the torsion axis) that translates into the magnetic Spin, in the magnetic field produced by the BH (intensity and shape), axis that presumably coincides with the axis of extrinsic rotation, and passes through the centers of mass and of Charge of the BH.
    • Compacting Matter shells – Around the central structure of the BH, the super-Particle, it is likely that there may be various shells formed by Matter at different stages of compaction, de-individuation and compression in the super-Particle. I do not believe that these could be structures with a clear boundary and perfect symmetry. I think instead that they could be a set of regions of Matter that is not completely homogeneous, still in the compression phase, which has not completely lost its identity. It is likely that, given the super density that should lead to a great viscosity, the slowness of the temporal flow, and the consequent limited dynamism, the stratification is not only affected by the different densities of the materials present in this section of the BH, but also and above all by the order of fall in the BH itself. In these shells we will find, from the outside towards the inside, molecules, atoms and composite particles (nucleons, neutrons and protons, and perhaps mesons and other particles formed by more quarks), then elementary particles (quarks and electrons, neutrinos, etc., with a prevalence of particles of higher generation, given the energies involved, such as top quarks, tauons, etc.), and still other even more massive particles, condensation / compression nuclei of increasingly larger quantities of Elementary Particles, which approach the final fusion in the super-Particle. These shells are immersed in the region characterized by the presence of Dark Energy (positive Mass) relative to the external region of the super-particle's Mass profile.
    • Event Horizon – It is the boundary beyond which nothing, not even light, can escape. It marks the "point of no return". It acts as the "surface" of the black hole, defining the region where escape velocity exceeds the speed of light. Everything inside the event horizon cannot escape, not even light. Or rather, not even electromagnetic waves (multiple cycles e.m. waves) / photons (single cycle e.m. waves), or rather, not even Waves, or rather, no InfoStructure (Vortex or Wave) can escape. The explanation that is given is that the curvature of Spacetime does not allow it, that gravity is so intense that nothing can escape. Basically right, but these are high-level explanations, related to the dynamics of Information / Energy, to fundamental physical quantities and associated phenomena.
      Let's try to go down to the most elementary levels of Reality. Let's try to see if we can find an explanation in the Dynamics of Elementary Action and its Modes / Components, in the Action that the Fundamental Force exerts on the Elementary Field.
      In light of what has already been said above, and more generally in this work, I think that one can imagine that in the region of the Elementary Field that from time to time hosts the part of the black hole included within the event horizon:
      • the spatial profile of Perturbation creates a sort of temporal / gravitational well where Time (deformation of the temporal metric equivalent to the accentuated attractive negative density of Mass) is extremely slowed down, with a gradient that culminates at the center of Mass,
      • the Field reacts to the presence of this immense inhomogeneity by orienting towards the center of Mass the elementary fluctuations in all the internal and external Space of the black hole super-particle. This reaction manifests itself as a very high level of correlation of Translation, which can be represented as a sort of gravitational well. If the Translation correlation is extremely strong, so the orientation of the elementary fluctuations is almost totally directed towards the center of Mass, the InfoStructures (Ordinary Matter and Dark Matter/Energy Vortices, as well as Dark Waves - GW - and Ordinary Waves - EMW) present inside the event horizon cannot orient the fluctuations differently to support their motion towards the outside of the black hole. To use a picturesque image, if the water flowing downstream in a rushing mountain river has an extreme speed, the salmon with all their strength will not be able to swim upstream, also because their movements will be significantly slowed down due to Time dilation, and therefore their Action will produce a very limited force that will not be able to overcome the current that carries them downstream and reorient the direction of motion.
    • Other internal structures – In current science, some models of black holes predict the presence of other internal structures. Among these: Cauchy Horizon (in rotating or charged black holes, this is a second horizon, a theoretical boundary beyond which determinism breaks down due to infinite blueshift effects, meaning the laws of physics may no longer predict future events), Mass Inflation (some models suggest that near the Cauchy horizon, mass parameters can grow uncontrollably due to intense gravitational interactions), etc.
  • Outer structure
    • Photon Sphere – A region where light can orbit the black hole due to extreme gravitational bending. This creates the strange visual effect seen in black hole images. A ring of light composed by the distorted images of the disk. What can we say about this in the context of Evolutionary Physics? We can imagine this region as a sort of wave guide that allows the propagation of electromagnetic waves all around the interior of the black hole. The waves propagate between two regions, an internal one that due to the levels of Perturbation (and therefore of the flow of Time) and the level of correlation of Translation (and therefore of orientation of the Motion towards the center of Mass due to gravity) does not allow the waves to enter and then exit (the waves that enter escape the photon sphere, they no longer participate in its luminosity). And an external one, which due to the lower, so to speak, gravity and the higher rate of the passage of time, configurations of Translation and Perturbation respectively, allows the waves to exit towards the outside of the black hole and disperse in the surrounding space (these escaping waves are obviously responsible for the fact that we can observe the photon sphere). The waves that propagate in the shell that we call photon sphere continue to feed its luminosity, until they either fall towards the inside of the black hole and are lost forever, or escape towards the outside. This sort of wave guide is created when the paths of the Waves follow the natural circularity, or rather sphericity, of the profile of the black hole. The Perturbation gradient is obviously a spherical gradient centered in the Center of Mass, and the Translation orientation points towards the center, pushing the waves in circular propagation around the core of the black hole to curve accordingly.
    • Innermost stable orbit: (ISCO) is the smallest orbit in which a Particle can stably orbit a black hole without spiraling inward. It plays a crucial role in black hole accretion disks, marking the inner edge in which matter can orbit before falling into the event horizon. For a non-rotating (Schwarzschild) black hole, the ISCO is positioned at a different radial distance depending on the type of black hole (rotating or non-rotating) and the direction of rotation of the BH and the material in orbit (if the particle orbits in the same direction as the black hole's spin, the ISCO gets closer to the event horizon, and vice versa). The ISCO influences the physics of black hole accretion and the gravitational wave signals from spiraling objects. In the terms of this work, we can say that the ISCO is the analogue, for Vortex InfoStructures, of what the Photon Sphere is for Waves. Vortex InfoStructures possess a Mass, even if small like neutrinos. They possess inertia, and can reach velocities that can only approach the limit of propagation of Causality, Action, Information. This causes the ISCO to tend to be in a slightly more external position with respect to the Photon Sphere. Here too, the level of Perturbation (rate of flow of Time) and the directionality of Translation (direction and intensity of the gravitational attraction) are crucial.
    • Accretion disk (if present) – Although not part of the black hole itself, this surrounding disk of superheated matter spirals inward, emitting intense radiation before crossing the event horizon. This is Ordinary (visible) Matter in the form of Particles of various nature, even "exotic" ones that are formed due to the extreme energetic environment (temperature, collisions, etc.), ionized atoms, electrons, gas, dust, falling towards the galactic center, or more or less extended fragments of Ordinary Matter, produced by the dismemberment of stellar objects, and so on. Here too, the slowing down produced by the time gradient corresponding to the Perturbation gradient and the Fractionation orientation towards the center of Mass of the BH (gravitational attraction) cause this matter to spiral until it falls beyond the event horizon. Part of the Energy (of motion, kinetic and thermal, but also electromagnetic and nuclear) and of the Mass of this rotating Matter escapes as it is emitted in the form of Dark and Ordinary Waves (Gravitational Waves and Electromagnetic Waves respectively).
    • Relativistic jets: These are powerful streams of ionized matter ejected from the vicinity of black holes at speeds close to the speed of light. These jets are commonly associated with active galactic nuclei (AGN), quasars and radio galaxies, where supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies drive extreme astrophysical processes. What does astrophysics tell us about this phenomenon, its formation and the mechanisms that characterize it? Intense gravitational forces and magnetic fields heat the matter to extreme temperatures, which gradually accumulates in the accretion disk waiting to fall beyond the event horizon. Magnetic fields within the disk play a crucial role in the formation of the jets, and twisted and tangled magnetic fields near the black hole can channel the plasma outwards, emitting jets along the black hole's rotation axis. In rotating black holes, the relativistic dragging effect of the reference frame can further influence the formation and acceleration of jets, which are characterized by extreme speeds, close to that of light. Some jets can extend for millions of light years into intergalactic space, shaping the surrounding environment and influencing the formation of galaxies, redistributing energy and matter, regulating star formation by heating the interstellar gas. Jets emit radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, X-rays and gamma rays.
      What can we add to this conventional picture? First of all, we can assume that the magnetic fields relevant for the formation and evolution of jets are not only those that form in the accretion disk due to radical rotation, ionization of the material, etc. Let us recall what was illustrated above. The main part of a black hole is made up of a sort of super-particle, with its Mass, its extrinsic linear and angular Motion, with its Charge (Chirality) and its Spin given by the orientation of the axis of the intrinsic rotation of the BH (which could coincide with that of its extrinsic rotation). It is precisely this Spin, which reorients in the same direction the Spins of all the event points of the Elementary Field in the internal and external regions that from time to time support the BH, which causes the BH itself to transform into an immense magnet, which, due to the extremely rapid extrinsic rotation and the dragging effect, can shape the lines of the magnetic field (derived field relative to the Spin) into complex, spiral and focused shapes towards and out of the poles of the BH. These structures, partly chaotic, turbulent, spiraling, constitute a natural particle accelerator capable of projecting material to very large distances at extremely high speeds and energy levels. The interactions within the jets, and with the interstellar medium, with the galactic magnetic field lines produce very significant energetic effects, including strong emissions of Electromagnetic Waves that can cover the entire spectrum.

Formation

As with many other aspects of these enigmatic objects, their formation also presents us with great conceptual and observational challenges. Gravitational wave astronomy is making a significant contribution, but the confusion is still great.

Excluding the hypothesis of the formation of primordial black holes in the early Universe through density fluctuations shortly after the Big Bang. No Big Bang, no primordial black holes!

The most plausible hypothesis, especially in the context of the hypotheses we have formulated here regarding the formation of the Universe and the objects and structures that compose it, is that of formation by stellar collapse, an extreme gravitational collapse, typically at the end of a massive star’s life cycle (when such a star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it can no longer support itself against gravity). The core collapses under its own weight, triggering a supernova explosion that ejects the outer layers of the star. If the remaining core is sufficiently massive (around 2.7–3 solar masses), it continues collapsing, forming a stellar-mass black hole. But, no singularity, as said above.

Black holes of larger masses may have formed by the collapse of more massive stars, or by the progressive aggregation of matter by a black hole already formed by stellar collapse. Even more massive black holes are likely to form only by the subsequent incorporation of stellar objects, mergers with neutron stars or other black holes.

The general structure of a galaxy with its dark (invisible) and ordinary (visible) components is such that it can be configured as an immense gravitational well, which attracts matter towards the center of Mass, precisely. Which presumably coincides with the center of rotation. As if the central nucleus of the galaxy were the hub of a gigantic wheel. A gigantic vortex that due to its shape and mass profile, due to its specific dynamics, attracts matter towards the center, facilitating the successive fusions of massive objects, in increasingly larger black holes. Which in the end (barring any interactions that project them in different directions) will tend to fall towards the galactic interior, where a black hole will have positioned itself and will continue to grow due to the collapse of material, gas and dust, stars, and of course black holes, even very massive ones.

Large contributions to the formation of giant black holes such as those found at the center of galaxies, in active galactic nuclei, in quasars, etc. undoubtedly come from the interactions / fusions of galaxies, among which we most frequently find dwarf galaxies. I believe that the probability of a fusion of central black holes in the context of a galactic merger is greater if the fusion involves a dwarf satellite galaxy. The direction of interaction of a saltellite galaxy will be much more likely directed towards the galactic center of the host galaxy, and the differences in size and Mass should make it more likely that the entire population of stars of the saltellite galaxy will remain within the incorporating galaxy. At the same time, the central black hole of the satellite galaxy is very likely to approach and merge with the central black hole of the incorporating galaxy, which having an immense mass exerts a formidable attraction.

I do not believe that the Formation of Supermassive Black Holes Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) can occur by direct collapse of massive gas clouds. An intermediate passage in the stellar phase I believe is the norm. A galactic cloud collapses into a star, which exhausts its fuel collapses into a black hole, which starts a growth path as hypothesized above.

Interactions

How do black holes interact? What do they interact with? Through which phenomena and mechanisms? Let's try to take a look at this aspect of the life of BHs from the perspective of Evolutionary Physics.

Black holes interact with their surroundings and with other objects in various ways, shaping the dynamics of the Universe.

Due to their Mass and especially their density, BHs interact mainly at the gravitational level, influencing nearby stars, gas clouds, and even other black holes. The great inhomogeneity of the Perturbation level, concentrated in a small volume, inhomogeneity that represents its great Mass, produces a great reaction of the Elementary Field for the restoration of homogeneity, which we represent as a high level of Translation correlation.

The direction of the elementary spatial fluctuations (Elementary Events) will tend to align on the straight line that joins the center of Mass of the attracted body with the center of Mass of the black hole. The greater the mass of the black hole, the greater the attraction, the greater the Translation correlation in the region of the Field that separates the two Masses. And the greater the temporal distribution of the spatial fluctuations in the aforementioned direction that conveys the gravitational attraction. That is, the greater the Time in which the spatial fluctuations of an event point of the Field point in the direction that goes from the attracted Mass to the center of the black hole.

This privileged orientation of Translation represents the gravitational acceleration that a test body would experience if placed in that region of Space. Let us remember that the acceleration (even that produced by a Mass through its gravitational attraction) is the potential kinetic energy (capable of causing, of inducing the movement of a Mass), not to be confused with the inertial motion of a body, which represents its effective kinetic energy, the kinetic energy properly speaking.

This Translation orientation, which can be incredibly coherent over immense distances, and which follows a quadratic law, the well-known law of the inverse square of the distance, combined with the dynamics of the Motion of the black hole and especially of the objects that enter the sphere of its attraction, produces all the gravitational phenomena and dynamics (spiral orbits, accretion disks, binary systems, ejections of stars from systems / galaxies, peculiar dynamics of globular clusters, mergers, etc.).

Even if the gravitational interaction, due to the immense Masses and densities at play (concentration and compactness), is certainly prevalent, black holes appear to interact also through other phenomena and dynamics.

We have interactions with effects on the Metric, and therefore on the flow of time and on the limit speed of propagation of Causality, Action and Information in the Field (speed of light): in the super intense gravitational field produced by (or associated with) a black hole, Time flows slower, even much slower, and the limit of the speed of propagation is lower than that of the "unstructured Field" (absolute vacuum, condition of emptiness, attention, not of nothingness). If the temporal curvature assumes a crucial importance in the dynamics of interactions in regions gravitationally dominated by BHs, especially by the super massive ones (gravitational lenses, frame-dragging, etc.), as said several times Space is not curved. It is the speed of propagation, instead, that is influenced, in part of the rate of flow of Time.

Then, we have the interactions determined by Chirality, which we could call Charge interactions, which are exerted differently on the constant objects, in gravitational relation, depending on whether the directions of rotation are concordant or discordant.

Finally, we have the interactions produced by the magnetic fields, which, among the most striking phenomena, create relativistic jets—high-speed streams of particles ejected from the poles of the BHs.

Global effects on the galactic environment, on its formation and evolution, are determined by the jets, but also by the powerful attraction especially by the central SMBHs.

But we have not yet talked about the interaction of BHs with Dark Matter and Energy. All the Ordinary (visible) Matter of a galaxy is immersed in the turbulent Vortex of Dark (invisible) Matter which represents the halo that completely envelops it, a sort of dynamic shell. The interaction between BHs and Dark Alone is obviously mainly of a gravitational type. Even if the low density of Dark Matter (remember, not constituted by Particles, but by a turbulent continuum of alteration of the space-time Metric, temporal to be honest) limits the intensity of such interaction. The Dark Halo, possessing a Charge and a Spin, also produces interactions at the level of Chirality of extrinsic rotation and at the level of orientation of the axes of intrinsic rotation / Spin / magnetic fields. The regions characterized by Dark Energy are located in the external part of the galactic bubbles, so I do not think that there are important interactions between the black holes, whether stellar, intermediate or central. The visible part of the galaxies is located in the central regions of the Dark Halo, therefore far from the regions dominated by Dark Energy. In reality, every Particle, every object, every Vortex-type InfoStructure, or every Form composed of Vortices, of Particles, in its surroundings sees a Perturbation configuration higher than the average of "zero point" so to speak. Which corresponds to what we call Dark Energy, positive Mass, repulsive, symmetrical to the Mass, the negative Mass that constitutes the body of the Vortex. As seen in the previous chapter, due to the greater extension of the volume in which it can distribute itself, the Dark Energy is much less dense than the Ordinary Mass. Therefore its repulsive effects are infinitely smaller, in normal conditions. In compression conditions, however, when the Vortices are forced to approach at very short distances, and the Dark Energy cannot redistribute itself, its repulsive action is expressed more and more intensely as the compression increases.

The immense and changing magnetic fields of the BHs, especially the central super massive ones, interact with the intragalactic magnetic fields produced by the turbulent dynamics inside the Dark Alone, producing even intense phenomena and influencing their dynamics (e.g. influencing the direction and shape of the polar jets, and their emissions).

A few more notes, regarding the main modes of interaction between black holes and between black holes and stellar objects, which we have already mentioned above, speaking of the formation of BHs.


Accretion

The mass of the BH can only increase. Everything that is swallowed (particles, radiation, dust, planets, stars, any Structure of Information representing Ordinary / Visible Matter and Energy) cannot come out, cannot separate from the whole that constitutes the actual BH. Perhaps only during catastrophic events (merger of extremely dense and compact objects such as neutron stars, other BHs) is it possible that in the dynamics of approach, collision and fusion of free parts of the Energy/Matter that constitutes the BH.

Merge

Evolution

Evaporation... Hawking radiation...


The evolution of black holes is a dynamic process that unfolds over cosmic timescales, shaping galaxies and influencing the universe's structure. Here’s an overview of their evolutionary journey:

1. Formation and Early Growth Black holes typically form from the collapse of massive stars, creating stellar-mass black holes.

Some may originate from primordial black holes, hypothesized to have formed in the early universe due to density fluctuations.

2. Accretion and Mass Growth Black holes grow by accreting matter—gas, dust, stars, or even other black holes.

Accretion disks form around them, generating intense radiation and sometimes producing quasars, among the brightest objects in the universe.

3. Mergers and Supermassive Black Holes Black holes can merge, forming larger ones and emitting gravitational waves detectable by observatories like LIGO and Virgo.

Supermassive black holes (SMBHs) at galaxy centers grow through mergers and continuous accretion, influencing galaxy evolution.

4. Spin Evolution and Relativistic Effects Black holes evolve in spin due to accretion and mergers, affecting their ability to generate relativistic jets—high-speed streams of particles.

These jets can extend for thousands of light-years, impacting star formation and galactic dynamics.

5. Long-Term Fate Over immense timescales, black holes may slowly lose mass due to Hawking radiation, though this process is extremely slow for large black holes.

In the distant future, as the universe expands and cools, black holes may become isolated remnants, influencing their surroundings through gravity.

In conclusion

This is a very broad topic. Here, we have only scratched the surface. Much deeper investigation would be necessary. But I hope the essence of what I said regarding some aspects of these enigmatic and frightening objects is clear. In extreme summary, for me:

  • black holes have a structure, including an internal one, within Ordinary Matter, even if it is very strange and exotic, which makes them up
  • their core can be represented as a super-particle
  • cannot host a singularity (which, in this model, as stated, cannot exist)
  • no primordial black holes exist (there was no Big Bang, and the only way black holes can form and evolve is through collapse and accretion


Links to the tables of contents of TFNR Paper


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