TFNR - Cosmic objects and bodies - Revision history

Paolo: /* Evolution */

2026-01-17T17:39:36Z

‎Evolution

Paolo: /* Evolution */

2026-01-17T17:38:48Z

‎Evolution

Paolo: /* Structure */

2026-01-17T17:37:32Z

‎Structure

Paolo: /* In conclusion */

2026-01-15T17:32:55Z

‎In conclusion

Paolo: /* Formation */

2026-01-15T17:32:28Z

‎Formation

Paolo: /* Structure */

2026-01-15T17:31:34Z

‎Structure

Show changes

Paolo: /* In conclusion */

2025-07-17T15:43:29Z

‎In conclusion

Paolo: /* In conclusion */

2025-07-17T15:43:07Z

‎In conclusion

Paolo: /* In conclusion */

2025-07-17T15:38:33Z

‎In conclusion

Paolo: /* Evolution */

2025-07-17T15:37:58Z

‎Evolution

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 We have seen how these enigmatic objects form—typically by the collapse of massive stars—and how they structure themselves, with all the different parts that make up their internal and external parts. We've explored how they grow—through the incorporation of Matter: gas, dust, stars, or even other black holes through mergers—and how they interact with the galaxy that hosts them, with intragalactic materials and objects, with compact bodies such as neutron stars, and with other BHs through (gravitational attraction, accretion, mergers, jets and radiation).
-'''The evolution of black holes is a dynamic process''' that unfolds over cosmic time scales, shaping galaxies and influencing the structure of the Universe. Let’s now examine some aspects of their possible evolutionary paths.
+'''The evolution of black holes is a dynamic process''' that unfolds over cosmic time scales, shaping galaxies and influencing the structure of the Universe. Let's now examine some aspects of their possible evolutionary paths.
 We cannot exclude the possibility that a stellar black hole—especially one with a relatively low Mass, that has not undergone significant accretion or fusion events—'''might wander undisturbed for eternity within its host galaxy, or even in extragalactic space''' (ejected due to dynamic gravitational interactions with very massive objects), without participating in the growth dynamics through fusion with other BHs.

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 Let's '''review some of the concepts expressed in this section''' to complete the overview of the formation and evolution of black holes.
-We have seen how these enigmatic objects form—typically by the collapse of massive stars—and how they structure themselves, with all the different parts that make up their internal and external parts. We’ve explored how they grow—through the incorporation of Matter: gas, dust, stars, or even other black holes through mergers—and how they interact with the galaxy that hosts them, with intragalactic materials and objects, with compact bodies such as neutron stars, and with other BHs through (gravitational attraction, accretion, mergers, jets and radiation).
+We have seen how these enigmatic objects form—typically by the collapse of massive stars—and how they structure themselves, with all the different parts that make up their internal and external parts. We've explored how they grow—through the incorporation of Matter: gas, dust, stars, or even other black holes through mergers—and how they interact with the galaxy that hosts them, with intragalactic materials and objects, with compact bodies such as neutron stars, and with other BHs through (gravitational attraction, accretion, mergers, jets and radiation).
 '''The evolution of black holes is a dynamic process''' that unfolds over cosmic time scales, shaping galaxies and influencing the structure of the Universe. Let’s now examine some aspects of their possible evolutionary paths.

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 **'''Innermost Stable Circular Orbit''' (ISCO) - The ISCO is the smallest orbit in which a Particle can stably revolve around a black hole without spiraling inward. It plays a crucial role in the dynamics of black hole accretion disks, marking the inner edge where matter can orbit before inevitably falling into the event horizon.<br>For a non-rotating (Schwarzschild) black hole, the ISCO lies at a fixed radial distance. However, its position varies depending on the black hole's rotation (or non-rotation) and the direction of orbital motion. If the orbiting particle moves in the same direction as the black hole's spin, the ISCO shifts closer to the event horizon; if it moves in the opposite direction, the ISCO lies farther out.<br>The ISCO influences both the physics of accretion and the gravitational wave signals emitted by spiraling objects. Within the framework of this work, we can say that the ISCO is the analogue, for Vortex InfoStructures, of what the Photon Sphere is for Waves. Vortex InfoStructures possess Mass—even if minimal, as in the case of neutrinos—and inertia, and can reach velocities that approach the limit of propagation for Causality / Action / Information. This causes the ISCO to be positioned slightly farther out than the Photon Sphere.<br>Here too, the level of Perturbation (rate of Time flow) and the directionality of Translation (direction and intensity of gravitational attraction) are decisive.
 **'''Accretion Disk''' (if present) - Although not part of the black hole itself, this is a surrounding disk of superheated Matter spiraling inward, emitting intense radiation before crossing the event horizon. It consists of Ordinary (visible) Matter in the form of Particles of various types—including "exotic" ones formed under extreme energetic conditions (temperature, collisions, etc.)—ionized atoms, electrons, gas, dust, and fragments of stellar objects torn apart by gravitational forces.<br>Here too, the slowing of Time associated with the Perturbation gradient, and the Translation orientation toward the center of Mass of the BH (gravitational attraction), cause this Matter to spiral inward until it crosses the event horizon. Part of the Energy—kinetic, thermal, electromagnetic, nuclear—and part of the Mass of this rotating Matter escapes, emitted in the form of Dark and Ordinary Waves (Gravitational Waves and Electromagnetic Waves, respectively).
-**'''Relativistic Jets''' - These are powerful streams of ionized Matter ejected from the vicinity of black holes at speeds approaching that of light. Jets are commonly associated with active galactic nuclei (AGN), quasars, and radio galaxies, where supermassive black holes drive extreme astrophysical processes.<br>Astrophysics explains that intense gravitational forces and magnetic fields heat the Matter to extreme temperatures, which accumulates in the accretion disk awaiting infall. Magnetic fields within the disk play a key role in jet formation. Twisted and tangled magnetic field lines near the black hole can channel plasma outward, emitting jets along the black hole’s rotation axis.<br>In rotating black holes, the relativistic frame-dragging effect further influences jet formation and acceleration, producing speeds near the speed of light. Some jets extend millions of light-years into intergalactic space, shaping their environment, influencing galaxy formation, redistributing Energy and Matter, and regulating star formation by heating interstellar gas. Jets emit radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.<br>What can we add to this conventional picture? First, we can hypothesize that the magnetic fields relevant to jet formation are not only those generated within the accretion disk by rotation and ionization. Let us recall what was previously illustrated: the main body of a black hole consists of a super-Particle, endowed with Mass, extrinsic linear and angular Motion, Charge (Chirality), and Spin—defined by the orientation of the axis of intrinsic rotation (which may coincide with the axis of extrinsic rotation).<br>It is precisely this Spin, which reorients the Spins of all the event-points of the Elementary Field in the internal and external regions that momentarily support the BH, that transforms the BH into an immense magnet. Due to its extremely rapid extrinsic rotation and the frame-dragging effect, the BH shapes the magnetic field lines (derived from Spin) into complex, spiral, and focused structures directed toward and out of its poles.<br>These structures—partly chaotic, turbulent, and spiraling—form a natural particle accelerator, capable of projecting Matter across vast distances at extremely high speeds and energy levels. Interactions within the jets, and with the interstellar medium and galactic magnetic field lines, produce significant energetic effects, including strong emissions of Electromagnetic Waves spanning the entire spectrum.
+**'''Relativistic Jets''' - These are powerful streams of ionized Matter ejected from the vicinity of black holes at speeds approaching that of light. Jets are commonly associated with active galactic nuclei (AGN), quasars, and radio galaxies, where supermassive black holes drive extreme astrophysical processes.<br>Astrophysics explains that intense gravitational forces and magnetic fields heat the Matter to extreme temperatures, which accumulates in the accretion disk awaiting infall. Magnetic fields within the disk play a key role in jet formation. Twisted and tangled magnetic field lines near the black hole can channel plasma outward, emitting jets along the black hole's rotation axis.<br>In rotating black holes, the relativistic frame-dragging effect further influences jet formation and acceleration, producing speeds near the speed of light. Some jets extend millions of light-years into intergalactic space, shaping their environment, influencing galaxy formation, redistributing Energy and Matter, and regulating star formation by heating interstellar gas. Jets emit radiation across the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.<br>What can we add to this conventional picture? First, we can hypothesize that the magnetic fields relevant to jet formation are not only those generated within the accretion disk by rotation and ionization. Let us recall what was previously illustrated: the main body of a black hole consists of a super-Particle, endowed with Mass, extrinsic linear and angular Motion, Charge (Chirality), and Spin—defined by the orientation of the axis of intrinsic rotation (which may coincide with the axis of extrinsic rotation).<br>It is precisely this Spin, which reorients the Spins of all the event-points of the Elementary Field in the internal and external regions that momentarily support the BH, that transforms the BH into an immense magnet. Due to its extremely rapid extrinsic rotation and the frame-dragging effect, the BH shapes the magnetic field lines (derived from Spin) into complex, spiral, and focused structures directed toward and out of its poles.<br>These structures—partly chaotic, turbulent, and spiraling—form a natural particle accelerator, capable of projecting Matter across vast distances at extremely high speeds and energy levels. Interactions within the jets, and with the interstellar medium and galactic magnetic field lines, produce significant energetic effects, including strong emissions of Electromagnetic Waves spanning the entire spectrum.
 ==== Formation ====

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 ==== In conclusion ====
-This is '''a very broad topic'''. Here, we have only scratched the surface. Much deeper investigation would be necessary to fully grasp the complexity and richness of the subject. But I hope the essence of what I’ve expressed regarding some aspects of these enigmatic and frightening objects is clear.
+This is '''a very broad topic'''. Here, we have only scratched the surface. Much deeper investigation would be necessary to fully grasp the complexity and richness of the subject. But I hope the essence of what I've expressed regarding some aspects of these enigmatic and frightening objects is clear.
 '''In extreme summary''', for me:

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 '''We exclude the hypothesis of primordial black hole''' formation in the early Universe through density fluctuations shortly after the Big Bang. No Big Bang, no primordial black holes!
-'''The most plausible hypothesis''', especially within the framework proposed here regarding the formation of the Universe and its constituent objects and structures, is that of '''stellar collapse''': an extreme gravitational implosion typically occurring at the end of a massive star’s life cycle. When such a star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it can no longer resist gravitational forces. Its core collapses under its own weight, triggering a '''supernova explosion''' that ejects the outer layers. If the remaining core is sufficiently massive (around 2.7–3 solar masses), it continues collapsing, forming a '''stellar-mass black hole'''. But, as stated above, '''no singularity'''.
+'''The most plausible hypothesis''', especially within the framework proposed here regarding the formation of the Universe and its constituent objects and structures, is that of '''stellar collapse''': an extreme gravitational implosion typically occurring at the end of a massive star's life cycle. When such a star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it can no longer resist gravitational forces. Its core collapses under its own weight, triggering a '''supernova explosion''' that ejects the outer layers. If the remaining core is sufficiently massive (around 2.7-3 solar masses), it continues collapsing, forming a '''stellar-mass black hole'''. But, as stated above, '''no singularity'''.
 Black holes of greater mass may form through the '''collapse of more massive stars''' or via the '''progressive aggregation of matter''' by a black hole already formed through stellar collapse. Even more massive black holes likely emerge through the '''incorporation of stellar objects, mergers with neutron stars, or other black holes'''.
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 '''The general structure of a galaxy''', with its dark (invisible) and ordinary (visible) components, can be configured as an immense '''gravitational well''', attracting matter toward its center of Mass, which presumably coincides with its center / axis of rotation. As if the galactic nucleus were the hub of a colossal wheel—a '''gigantic Vortex''' whose shape, Mass profile, and specific dynamics draw Matter inward, facilitating successive fusions of massive objects into increasingly larger black holes. These very massive objects, barring interactions that eject them, will tend to fall toward the galactic interior, where a central black hole resides and continues to grow through the collapse of gas, dust, stars, and—of course—other black holes, even very massive ones.
-'''Significant contributions to the formation of supermassive black holes''', such as those found at galactic centers, in active galactic nuclei, quasars, etc., undoubtedly '''arise from galactic interactions and mergers''', especially involving '''dwarf galaxies'''. It is reasonable to assume that the probability of central black hole fusion during a galactic merger is higher when the merger involves a '''satellite dwarf galaxy'''. The trajectory of such a satellite is more likely directed toward the host galaxy’s center, and the disparity in size and mass increases the likelihood that the satellite’s entire stellar population remains within the host. Simultaneously, the satellite’s central black hole is very likely to approach and merge with the host’s central black hole, which—due to its immense mass—exerts a '''formidable gravitational pull'''.
+'''Significant contributions to the formation of supermassive black holes''', such as those found at galactic centers, in active galactic nuclei, quasars, etc., undoubtedly '''arise from galactic interactions and mergers''', especially involving '''dwarf galaxies'''. It is reasonable to assume that the probability of central black hole fusion during a galactic merger is higher when the merger involves a '''satellite dwarf galaxy'''. The trajectory of such a satellite is more likely directed toward the host galaxy's center, and the disparity in size and mass increases the likelihood that the satellite's entire stellar population remains within the host. Simultaneously, the satellite's central black hole is very likely to approach and merge with the host's central black hole, which—due to its immense mass—exerts a '''formidable gravitational pull'''.
 I do not believe that the formation of supermassive black holes (SMBHs) occurs '''via direct collapse of massive gas clouds'''. An '''intermediate stellar phase is, in my view, the norm'''. A galactic cloud collapses into a star, which exhausts its fuel and collapses into a black hole, initiating a growth trajectory as hypothesized above. In my opinion, gas and dust can feed black holes, but not cause them to form from scratch.

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 '''In extreme summary''', for me:
 *black holes are '''not just gravitational traps'''—they are '''dynamic, evolving structures that shape the architecture of the Universe'''
-*their interactions—through accretion, mergers, jets, and field dynamics—are central to the cosmic narrative
+*their '''interactions'''—through accretion, mergers, jets, and field dynamics—'''are central to the cosmic narrative'''
 *they '''have a structure, including an internal one''', within Ordinary Matter, even if it is very strange and exotic, which makes them up
 *'''their core can be represented as a super-particle'''

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 *'''black holes have a structure, including an internal one''', within Ordinary Matter, even if it is very strange and exotic, which makes them up
 *'''their core can be represented as a super-particle'''
-*'''cannot host a singularity''' (which, in this model, as stated, cannot exist)
+*'''no singularity''' (which, in this model, as stated, cannot exist)
 *'''no primordial black holes''' exist (there was no Big Bang, and the only way black holes can form and evolve is through collapse and accretion
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 ==== Evolution ====
-Let's review some of the concepts expressed in this section to complete the overview of the formation and evolution of black holes.
+Let's '''review some of the concepts expressed in this section''' to complete the overview of the formation and evolution of black holes.
-We have seen how these enigmatic objects form (typically by the collapse of massive stars) and structure themselves (with all the different parts that make up the internal and external structures), how they grow (incorporation of matter: gas, dust, stars or even other black holes), how they interact with the galaxy that hosts them, with intragalactic materials and objects, with compact objects such as neutron stars and the black holes themselves (gravitational attraction, accretion, mergers, jets and radiation).
+We have seen how these enigmatic objects form—typically by the collapse of massive stars—and how they structure themselves, with all the different parts that make up their internal and external parts. We’ve explored how they grow—through the incorporation of Matter: gas, dust, stars, or even other black holes through mergers—and how they interact with the galaxy that hosts them, with intragalactic materials and objects, with compact bodies such as neutron stars, and with other BHs through (gravitational attraction, accretion, mergers, jets and radiation).
-The evolution of black holes is a dynamic process that develops on cosmic time scales, shaping galaxies and influencing the structure of the universe. Let's now look at some aspects of their possible evolutionary path.
+'''The evolution of black holes is a dynamic process''' that unfolds over cosmic time scales, shaping galaxies and influencing the structure of the Universe. Let’s now examine some aspects of their possible evolutionary paths.
-We cannot exclude that a stellar black hole (especially one with a not too high mass, a black hole that has not undergone some accretion by fusion, or in any case few events of this type) can wander undisturbed for eternity in the galaxy that hosts it or even in extragalactic space (ejection due to dynamic effects of gravitational interaction with very massive objects) without interacting with the growth dynamics by fusion of other black holes.
+We cannot exclude the possibility that a stellar black hole—especially one with a relatively low Mass, that has not undergone significant accretion or fusion events—'''might wander undisturbed for eternity within its host galaxy, or even in extragalactic space''' (ejected due to dynamic gravitational interactions with very massive objects), without participating in the growth dynamics through fusion with other BHs.
-But it is more reasonable to think that the strong gravitational attraction of these objects, increasingly greater as their mass increases, brings them towards increasingly crowded galactic regions, multiplying the probability of incurring mergers with other BHs. In general, the more massive the object, the greater its tendency to escape local dynamics, to follow a long-term trend that leads it to get closer and closer to the galactic center, where a supermassive black hole is waiting to swallow it, after a gravitational dance that can be very long but with an inexorable outcome (except for rare cases of gravitational kick that can throw the approaching black hole into the deep cosmos).
+However, it is more reasonable to assume that the strong gravitational attraction of these objects—growing stronger as their Mass increases—draws them toward increasingly crowded galactic regions, multiplying the probability of encountering mergers with other BHs. In general, the more massive the object, the greater its tendency to escape local dynamics and follow '''a long-term trajectory that leads it ever closer to the galactic center''', where a supermassive black hole (SMBH) awaits to absorb it—after a gravitational dance that may be prolonged but ultimately inexorable (except in rare cases of gravitational kick, which may hurl the approaching BH into deep space).
 As for SMBHs, in their evolution we certainly find the formation of accretion disks, which generate intense radiation and sometimes produce quasars, among the brightest objects in the universe. And again, the active participation in the interaction dynamics in the merger between galaxies, perhaps without then encountering a merger with the SMBH of the other galaxy, but still greatly influencing the outcome of the galactic merger. Let us also remember phenomena such as the emission of powerful gravitational waves and the evolution of spin (due to accretion and mergers), which can influence their ability to generate relativistic jets, high-speed particle flows and electromagnetic radiation.
-Regarding the final fate of a black hole, there is much talk of evaporation, Hawking Radiation, and so on. After having rejected the possibility that some of them could originate from primordial black holes (an impossible hypothesis, in a Universe without a Big Bang), I would also reject the hypothesis of their disappearance by evaporation, even if in an almost infinite time. This supposed phenomenon does not seem plausible to me, and in any case, even if it were possible, I believe its effect would be so modest and diluted over an immense time that in my opinion it would not significantly influence the dynamics and fates of black holes and more generally of the Universe. Yes, I understand, it is a central aspect in the attempt to understand the relationships between Relativity and the quantum world. But I believe that, for this purpose, it will be necessary to find other more "concrete" and "observable" phenomena.
+As for SMBHs, '''their evolution certainly includes the formation of accretion disks,''' which generate intense radiation and sometimes produce quasars—among the brightest objects in the Universe. They also play an active role in the interaction dynamics during galactic mergers, even if they do not always merge with the SMBH of the other interacting galaxy. Nevertheless, they significantly influence the outcome of the galactic merger. Let us also recall phenomena such as:
 ==== In conclusion ====