TFNR - Atoms - Revision history

Paolo at 12:57, 15 July 2025

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Paolo at 14:53, 16 April 2025

2025-04-16T14:53:10Z

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-Atoms are '''the fundamental building blocks of Ordinary Matter'''. We typically associate Ordinary Matter with visible Matter - Matter that can be detected directly - while contrasting it with Dark Matter, which does not emit electromagnetic radiation and is observable only through its gravitational effects.
+Atoms are '''the fundamental building blocks of Ordinary Matter'''. We typically associate Ordinary Matter with visible Matter—Matter that can be detected directly—while contrasting it with Dark Matter, which does not emit electromagnetic radiation and is observable only through its gravitational effects.
 Restrictive and expanded definitions (more accurate / correct)  of Atom:
-*restrictive definition (close to the definition accepted by conventional physics): '''any system of interacting Matter Particles (elementary and composite vortices) with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton --> anti-atom).
+*restrictive definition (close to the definition accepted by conventional physics): '''any system of interacting Matter Particles (elementary and composite vortices) with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton -> anti-atom).
-*expanded definition (in the terms of the Knowledge System proposed here): '''any system of interacting InfoStructures - elementary and composite Vortices, Waves and Interactions of Ordinary (visible) Matter and Ordinary Radiation - with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton → anti-atom).
+*expanded definition (in the terms of the Knowledge System proposed here): '''any system of interacting InfoStructures—elementary and composite Vortices, Waves and Interactions of Ordinary (visible) Matter and Ordinary Radiation—with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton → anti-atom).
-Technically, an atom is a system of InfoStructures - nucleons, electrons, and various other wave-type and particle-type InfoStructures. These include bosons, gluons (which bind quarks and nucleons within the atomic nucleus), and electromagnetic photons / waves exchanged between atomic electrons. These "real" waves and particles are immersed in and interact with a sea of "virtual" waves and particles, which constitute the natural and induced turbulence. This turbulence extends across multiple dimensional scales within the Elementary Field, which, at any given moment, supports the aforementioned InfoStructures.
+Technically, an atom is a system of InfoStructures—nucleons, electrons, and various other wave-type and particle-type InfoStructures. These include bosons, gluons (which bind quarks and nucleons within the atomic nucleus), and electromagnetic photons / waves exchanged between atomic electrons. These "real" waves and particles are immersed in and interact with a sea of "virtual" waves and particles, which constitute the natural and induced turbulence. This turbulence extends across multiple dimensional scales within the Elementary Field, which, at any given moment, supports the aforementioned InfoStructures.
-'''The spatial extension of atoms is on the order of magnitude of 10<sup>-10</sup> meters'''. This value is an approximation and depends on various factors, primarily the atom's composition - its chemical element, the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and the number and state of electrons in its electron cloud.
+'''The spatial extension of atoms is on the order of magnitude of 10<sup>-10</sup> meters'''. This value is an approximation and depends on various factors, primarily the atom's composition—its chemical element, the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and the number and state of electrons in its electron cloud.
-Furthermore, '''determining the exact spatial dimensions of the nucleus and individual electrons within an atom is highly challenging'''. Since the atom consists of a nucleon cloud and a surrounding electron cloud, each nucleon and each electron is itself a dynamic cloud of Events and Relations (correlations), so a complex Process, partly chaotic / stochastic  - indeterminate - and partly organized - determinate that continuously fluctuates in shape and dynamics. This variability arises due to fundamental uncertainties in Elementary Events and their correlations, the turbulent dynamics of the Elementary Field, and interactions with other structures present within the Field.
+Furthermore, '''determining the exact spatial dimensions of the nucleus and individual electrons within an atom is highly challenging'''. Since the atom consists of a nucleon cloud and a surrounding electron cloud, each nucleon and each electron is itself a dynamic cloud of Events and Relations (correlations), so a complex Process, partly chaotic / stochastic—indeterminate—and partly organized—determinate that continuously fluctuates in shape and dynamics. This variability arises due to fundamental uncertainties in Elementary Events and their correlations, the turbulent dynamics of the Elementary Field, and interactions with other structures present within the Field.
 '''The shape and spatial extension of Particles and atoms are in constant flux''', with greater variation occurring as the energy within the system increases. Despite this, we can attempt to hypothesize approximate orders of magnitude.
@@ Line 25: / Line 25: @@
 While the concept of the atom and the atomistic approach to studying Matter have ancient origins, dating back to Greek philosophers, extensive research into atomic structure and phenomena has intensified, particularly over the past two centuries.
-The atom cannot be fully described within a classical framework; rather, '''it requires a quantum mechanical approach'''. To model atomic structure, explain atomic phenomena - such as the emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation or photon interactions, and radioactive decay - and, most importantly, predict experimental outcomes, '''various quantum models of the atom have been developed'''. These models describe '''a dense nucleus''' composed of massive nucleons, surrounded by '''an electron cloud'''. They both exhibit probabilistic behavior.
+The atom cannot be fully described within a classical framework; rather, '''it requires a quantum mechanical approach'''. To model atomic structure, explain atomic phenomena—such as the emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation or photon interactions, and radioactive decay - and, most importantly, predict experimental outcomes, '''various quantum models of the atom have been developed'''. These models describe '''a dense nucleus''' composed of massive nucleons, surrounded by '''an electron cloud'''. They both exhibit probabilistic behavior.
-To study the nucleus and nuclear phenomena, '''a range of physical disciplines and specific theories have been developed and continue to evolve'''. These include nuclear physics - focused on nuclear structure and reactions - along with theories of nuclear forces (weak and strong interactions), radioactivity (alpha, beta, and gamma decay), and within the framework of Quantum Field Theory: Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), and others.
+To study the nucleus and nuclear phenomena, '''a range of physical disciplines and specific theories have been developed and continue to evolve'''. These include nuclear physics—focused on nuclear structure and reactions—along with theories of nuclear forces (weak and strong interactions), radioactivity (alpha, beta, and gamma decay), and within the framework of Quantum Field Theory: Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), and others.
 As part of the evolutionary approach to studying the Reality addressed in this paper, '''a specific model of the electron cloud is proposed, derived from a unique representation of Matter Particles''', particularly the electron, as outlined in previous chapters.
@@ Line 33: / Line 33: @@
 '''The atomic orbital is not viewed merely as a probabilistic spatial volume where the electron "is likely to be found"''', expressed as the probability of detecting the electron at a given point in the orbital, '''but rather as the "actual spatial form that the electron assumes"'''. This shape is determined by its interactions with the nucleus, with other electrons in the atom, and with its surrounding atomic environment, as it finds equilibrium within the space (or rather the Elementary Field) that hosts the atom.
-Although atoms and molecules constitute the fundamental building blocks of the Matter composing both living organisms and the visible Universe - making them central to its description - to delve deeper into the nature of Physical Reality and account for the (hypothetical) 95% of the Universe's Energy content beyond Ordinary Matter, I propose '''shifting beyond atomistic theory and re-evaluating the centrality of atom and particle concepts''' in the broader understanding of Nature and Physical Phenomena.
+Although atoms and molecules constitute the fundamental building blocks of the Matter composing both living organisms and the visible Universe—making them central to its description—to delve deeper into the nature of Physical Reality and account for the (hypothetical) 95% of the Universe's Energy content beyond Ordinary Matter, I propose '''shifting beyond atomistic theory and re-evaluating the centrality of atom and particle concepts''' in the broader understanding of Nature and Physical Phenomena.
 {{Template:PaperPages1}}

@@ Line 33: / Line 33: @@
 '''The atomic orbital is not viewed merely as a probabilistic spatial volume where the electron "is likely to be found"''', expressed as the probability of detecting the electron at a given point in the orbital, '''but rather as the "actual spatial form that the electron assumes"'''. This shape is determined by its interactions with the nucleus, with other electrons in the atom, and with its surrounding atomic environment, as it finds equilibrium within the space (or rather the Elementary Field) that hosts the atom.
-Although atoms and molecules constitute the fundamental building blocks of the Matter composing both living organisms and the visible Universe - making them central to its description - to delve deeper into the nature of Physical Reality and account for the (hypothetical) 95% of the Universe’s Energy content beyond Ordinary Matter, I propose '''shifting beyond atomistic theory and re-evaluating the centrality of atom and particle concepts''' in the broader understanding of Nature and Physical Phenomena.
+Although atoms and molecules constitute the fundamental building blocks of the Matter composing both living organisms and the visible Universe - making them central to its description - to delve deeper into the nature of Physical Reality and account for the (hypothetical) 95% of the Universe's Energy content beyond Ordinary Matter, I propose '''shifting beyond atomistic theory and re-evaluating the centrality of atom and particle concepts''' in the broader understanding of Nature and Physical Phenomena.
 {{Template:PaperPages1}}

@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 Technically, an atom is a system of InfoStructures - nucleons, electrons, and various other wave-type and particle-type InfoStructures. These include bosons, gluons (which bind quarks and nucleons within the atomic nucleus), and electromagnetic photons / waves exchanged between atomic electrons. These "real" waves and particles are immersed in and interact with a sea of "virtual" waves and particles, which constitute the natural and induced turbulence. This turbulence extends across multiple dimensional scales within the Elementary Field, which, at any given moment, supports the aforementioned InfoStructures.
-'''The spatial extension of atoms is on the order of magnitude of 10<sup>-10</sup> meters'''. This value is an approximation and depends on various factors, primarily the atom’s composition - its chemical element, the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and the number and state of electrons in its electron cloud.
+'''The spatial extension of atoms is on the order of magnitude of 10<sup>-10</sup> meters'''. This value is an approximation and depends on various factors, primarily the atom's composition - its chemical element, the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and the number and state of electrons in its electron cloud.
 Furthermore, '''determining the exact spatial dimensions of the nucleus and individual electrons within an atom is highly challenging'''. Since the atom consists of a nucleon cloud and a surrounding electron cloud, each nucleon and each electron is itself a dynamic cloud of Events and Relations (correlations), so a complex Process, partly chaotic / stochastic  - indeterminate - and partly organized - determinate that continuously fluctuates in shape and dynamics. This variability arises due to fundamental uncertainties in Elementary Events and their correlations, the turbulent dynamics of the Elementary Field, and interactions with other structures present within the Field.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-Atoms are '''the fundamental building blocks of Ordinary Matter'''. We typically associate Ordinary Matter with visible Matter — Matter that can be detected directly - while contrasting it with Dark Matter, which does not emit electromagnetic radiation and is observable only through its gravitational effects.
+Atoms are '''the fundamental building blocks of Ordinary Matter'''. We typically associate Ordinary Matter with visible Matter - Matter that can be detected directly - while contrasting it with Dark Matter, which does not emit electromagnetic radiation and is observable only through its gravitational effects.
 Restrictive and expanded definitions (more accurate / correct)  of Atom:
-*restrictive definition (close to the definition accepted by conventional physics): '''Atom: any system of interacting Matter Particles (elementary and composite vortices) with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton --> anti-atom).
+*restrictive definition (close to the definition accepted by conventional physics): '''any system of interacting Matter Particles (elementary and composite vortices) with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton --> anti-atom).
 *expanded definition (in the terms of the Knowledge System proposed here): '''any system of interacting InfoStructures - elementary and composite Vortices, Waves and Interactions of Ordinary (visible) Matter and Ordinary Radiation - with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton → anti-atom).
 '''The spatial extension of atoms is on the order of magnitude of 10<sup>-10</sup> meters'''. This value is an approximation and depends on various factors, primarily the atom’s composition - its chemical element, the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and the number and state of electrons in its electron cloud.

@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 '''The shape and spatial extension of Particles and atoms are in constant flux''', with greater variation occurring as the energy within the system increases. Despite this, we can attempt to hypothesize approximate orders of magnitude.
-'''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extension of the atomic nucleus is about 10<sup>-15</sup> meters'''. "The nucleus seems to be about 100,000 times smaller than the atom itself.
+'''The approximate scale of the atomic nucleus's spatial extension is on the order of 10<sup>-15</sup> meters'''. The nucleus seems to be about 100,000 times smaller than the atom itself.
 '''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extent of an electron within an atom''' is variable and strongly dependent on:
@@ Line 25: / Line 25: @@
 The atom cannot be fully described within a classical framework; rather, '''it requires a quantum mechanical approach'''. To model atomic structure, explain atomic phenomena - such as the emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation or photon interactions, and radioactive decay - and, most importantly, predict experimental outcomes, '''various quantum models of the atom have been developed'''. These models describe '''a dense nucleus''' composed of massive nucleons, surrounded by '''an electron cloud'''. They both exhibit probabilistic behavior.
-To study the nucleus and nuclear phenomena, '''a series of physical disciplines and specific theories have been developed and are still being developed''': nuclear physics (of the structure of the nucleus and of nuclear reactions), theories of nuclear forces (weak and strong), radioactivity (alpha, beta and gamma), and in the field of the Quantum Fields Theory: the Quantum Chromodynamics QCD, the Quantum Electrodynamics QED, etc.
+To study the nucleus and nuclear phenomena, '''a range of physical disciplines and specific theories have been developed and continue to evolve'''. These include nuclear physics - focused on nuclear structure and reactions - along with theories of nuclear forces (weak and strong interactions), radioactivity (alpha, beta, and gamma decay), and within the framework of Quantum Field Theory: Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), and others.
-To study the nucleus and nuclear phenomena, '''a range of physical disciplines and specific theories have been developed and continue to evolve'''. These include nuclear physics—focused on nuclear structure and reactions—along with theories of nuclear forces (weak and strong interactions), radioactivity (alpha, beta, and gamma decay), and within the framework of Quantum Field Theory: Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), and others.
+As part of the evolutionary approach to studying the Reality addressed in this paper, '''a specific model of the electron cloud is proposed, derived from a unique representation of Matter Particles''', particularly the electron, as outlined in previous chapters.
-−
-−
-−
-As part of the evolutionary approach to the study of the reality covered by this paper, '''a particular model of the electronic cloud is proposed which derives from the specific representation of matter particles''', in particular the electron, which we have outlined in the previous chapters.
-−
-As part of the evolutionary approach to studying the reality addressed in this paper, '''a specific model of the electron cloud is proposed, derived from a unique representation of matter particles''', particularly the electron, as outlined in previous chapters.
-−
-−
-'''The atomic orbital is not seen as the physical volume of space where the electron "can be calculated to be present"''', a value expressed as the probability of finding the electron in a certain point of the orbital, '''but as the "actual spatial form that the electron assumes"''' when, interacting with the nucleus, with itself, with any other electrons present in the atom, with the surrounding atomic environment, it finds its place within the volume of space (or rather the Field Elementary) which houses the atom itself.
 '''The atomic orbital is not viewed merely as a probabilistic spatial volume where the electron "is likely to be found"''', expressed as the probability of detecting the electron at a given point in the orbital, '''but rather as the "actual spatial form that the electron assumes"'''. This shape is determined by its interactions with the nucleus, with other electrons in the atom, and with its surrounding atomic environment, as it finds equilibrium within the space (or rather the Elementary Field) that hosts the atom.
+Although atoms and molecules constitute the fundamental building blocks of the Matter composing both living organisms and the visible Universe - making them central to its description - to delve deeper into the nature of Physical Reality and account for the (hypothetical) 95% of the Universe’s Energy content beyond Ordinary Matter, I propose '''shifting beyond atomistic theory and re-evaluating the centrality of atom and particle concepts''' in the broader understanding of Nature and Physical Phenomena.
-Although atoms and molecules are the fundamental building blocks of the matter we are made of and of which the visible part of the Universe is made, and therefore central to its description, to understand deeper aspects of Physical Reality and attempt to account for the (supposed) 95% of the energy content of the Universe other than ordinary matter, it is my opinion that it is necessary '''to overcome the atomistic theory and the centrality of the concepts of atom and particle''' in the description of Nature and the Physical Phenomena.
-−
-Although atoms and molecules constitute the fundamental building blocks of the matter composing both living organisms and the visible Universe—making them central to its description—'''to delve deeper into the nature of Physical Reality and account for the (hypothetical) 95% of the Universe’s energy content beyond ordinary matter, I propose shifting beyond atomistic theory and re-evaluating the centrality of atomic and particle concepts''' in the broader understanding of Nature and Physical Phenomena.
-−
 {{Template:PaperPages1}}

@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 '''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extent of a free electron''', not bound to an atom, stationary or moving at non-relativistic speeds, experiencing no significant acceleration (either in the direction of motion or in other directions), free from electric or magnetic fields, and not interacting electromagnetically or gravitationally (no gravitational, kinetic, electronic, magnetic, nuclear interaction with the environment): approximately 10<sup>-13</sup> meters.
+The atom cannot be fully described within a classical framework; rather, '''it requires a quantum mechanical approach'''. To model atomic structure, explain atomic phenomena - such as the emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation or photon interactions, and radioactive decay - and, most importantly, predict experimental outcomes, '''various quantum models of the atom have been developed'''. These models describe '''a dense nucleus''' composed of massive nucleons, surrounded by '''an electron cloud'''. They both exhibit probabilistic behavior.
-Although the concept of the atom and the atomistic approach to the study of matter come from afar, in particular from some Greek philosophers, an extremely intense effort has been devoted to the study of the atom and of atonic phenomena, especially in the last two centuries.
-−
-While the concept of the atom and the atomistic approach to studying matter have ancient origins, dating back to Greek philosophers, extensive research into atomic structure and phenomena has intensified, particularly over the past two centuries.
-−
-−
-The atom cannot be described in a classical frame of reference, but '''requires a quantum approach'''. To identify its structure, try to explain atomic phenomena, such as the emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation or photons, or radioactive decay, etc. , but above all to predict the results of observations / experiments / measurements, '''some quantum physical models of the atom have been developed'''. These models predict '''the presence and interaction of a dense nucleus''' containing massive particles we call nucleons '''and an electron cloud''' surrounding the nucleus.
-−
-The atom cannot be fully described within a classical framework; rather, '''it requires a quantum mechanical approach'''. To model atomic structure, explain atomic phenomena—such as the emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation, photon interactions, and radioactive decay—and, most importantly, predict experimental outcomes, '''various quantum models of the atom have been developed'''. These models describe '''a dense nucleus''' composed of massive nucleons, surrounded by '''an electron cloud''' exhibiting probabilistic behavior.
-−
-−
 To study the nucleus and nuclear phenomena, '''a series of physical disciplines and specific theories have been developed and are still being developed''': nuclear physics (of the structure of the nucleus and of nuclear reactions), theories of nuclear forces (weak and strong), radioactivity (alpha, beta and gamma), and in the field of the Quantum Fields Theory: the Quantum Chromodynamics QCD, the Quantum Electrodynamics QED, etc.

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 Furthermore, '''determining the exact spatial dimensions of the nucleus and individual electrons within an atom is highly challenging'''. Since the atom consists of a nucleon cloud and a surrounding electron cloud, each nucleon and each electron is itself a dynamic cloud of Events and Relations (correlations), so a complex Process, partly chaotic / stochastic  - indeterminate - and partly organized - determinate that continuously fluctuates in shape and dynamics. This variability arises due to fundamental uncertainties in Elementary Events and their correlations, the turbulent dynamics of the Elementary Field, and interactions with other structures present within the Field.
+'''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extension of the atomic nucleus is about 10<sup>-15</sup> meters'''. "The nucleus seems to be about 100,000 times smaller than the atom itself.
-−
-'''Shape and spatial extension of particles and atoms change incessantly''', all the more the greater the energy present in the system. Nevertheless, let's try to hypothesize orders of magnitude...
-−
-'''The shape and spatial extension of particles and atoms are in constant flux''', with greater variation occurring as the energy within the system increases. Despite this, we can attempt to hypothesize approximate orders of magnitude.
-−
-−
-−
-'''Presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extension of the atomic nucleus: 10<sup>-15</sup>'''.
-−
-'''Presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extension of the atomic nucleus: 10<sup>-15</sup> meters'''.
-−
-−
-'''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extent of an electron in an atom''' is variable and highly depends on:
-*from the composition, electric charge and spin of the nucleus
-* which orbital is (occupied by) the considered electron, its position in the electron cloud, and therefore which shape it assumes, its state of excitation / motion inside the electron cloud
-*from the dynamics of the electron cloud, the atom, its motion, the temperature, the (chemical) bonds with other atoms, the position within a molecule or a series of molecules (e.g. a crystal), the state of the material of which it is a component (gaseous, liquid, solid, etc.)
-*other minor factors
-−
 '''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extent of an electron within an atom''' is variable and strongly dependent on:
-The composition, electric charge, and spin of the nucleus
+'''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extent of a free electron''', not bound to an atom, stationary or moving at non-relativistic speeds, experiencing no significant acceleration (either in the direction of motion or in other directions), free from electric or magnetic fields, and not interacting electromagnetically or gravitationally (no gravitational, kinetic, electronic, magnetic, nuclear interaction with the environment): approximately 10<sup>-13</sup> meters.
-−
-The orbital occupied by the electron, its position within the electron cloud, its shape, and its excitation/motion within the cloud
-−
-The dynamics of the electron cloud, atomic motion, temperature, and chemical bonds with other atoms
-−
-The electron’s position within a molecule or larger molecular structure (e.g., a crystal) and the physical state of the material (gaseous, liquid, solid, etc.)
-−
-Other minor influencing factors
-−
-−
-−
-−
-'''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extent of a free electron''' (not part of an atom, at rest or in motion at a non-relativistic speed, not subject to significant accelerations either in the direction of motion or in other directions, in the absence of an electric and magnetic field and not subject to electromagnetic radiation (no gravitational, kinetic, electronic, magnetic, nuclear interaction with the environment): 10<sup>-13</sup>.
-−
-'''The presumable order of magnitude of the spatial extent of a free electron''' (not bound to an atom, stationary or moving at non-relativistic speeds, experiencing no significant acceleration, free from electric or magnetic fields, and not interacting electromagnetically or gravitationally): approximately 10<sup>-13</sup> meters.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-Atoms are '''the building blocks of what we call ordinary matter''' forms (which we normally identify with visible matter, which can be seen, as opposed to dark matter, which we cannot see as it does not appear to emit any electromagnetic radiation, but can only be detected through the observation of its gravitational effects).
+Atoms are '''the fundamental building blocks of Ordinary Matter'''. We typically associate Ordinary Matter with visible Matter — Matter that can be detected directly - while contrasting it with Dark Matter, which does not emit electromagnetic radiation and is observable only through its gravitational effects.
-Atoms are '''the fundamental building blocks of ordinary matter'''. We typically associate ordinary matter with visible matter—matter that can be detected directly—while contrasting it with dark matter, which does not emit electromagnetic radiation and is observable only through its gravitational effects.
+Restrictive and expanded definitions (more accurate/correct)  of Atom:
+*restrictive definition (close to the definition accepted by conventional physics): '''Atom: any system of interacting Matter Particles (elementary and composite vortices) with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton --> anti-atom).
+*expanded definition (in the terms of the Knowledge System proposed here): '''any system of interacting InfoStructures - elementary and composite Vortices, Waves and Interactions of Ordinary (visible) Matter and Ordinary Radiation - with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton → anti-atom).
-−
-'''Atom: any system of interacting matter particles (elementary and composite vortices) with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton --> anti-atom).
-−
-'''Atom: any system of interacting matter particles (elementary and composite vortices) with a nucleus composed of at least one proton''' (or anti-proton → anti-atom).